ENERGY FROM WASTE

Prepared by
M.LALU

09/13/2021 Asst.prof M.Lalu 1

 UNIT IV
BIOMASSCOMBUSTION
 Archaeological findings indicate that the use of fire was known to mankind 400
000 years ago.
The use of fire for cooking dates back to 100 000 years ago, and cooking was
presumably done over an open fire (mainly for cooking/ roasting meat) with the
fuel arranged in a pyramid shape.
Despite lack of control on the fire and the smoky conditions, the open fire had
the benefits of preserving food, protecting against animals, and providing
warmth.
A major development in open fire was the evolution of different-shaped vessels
and later of a shielded three-stone stove for holding the pot over the open fire.
Subsequently, the shielded fire was changed to a U-shaped mud or mud/stone
stove with a front opening for fuel feeding and combustion air entry.
Since then, despite several developments in the wood stoves, a large population
in the developing world still employs the traditional three-stone or U-shaped
shielded fire stove, and in many cases, they alternate between wood, cow dung
cakes, and agro-residue for fuel (FAO 1993).
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 Classification of bio-mass stoves:
 Stoves that burn biomass such as firewood and agro-
residues are called biomass stoves.
 These are used at both the domestic and institutional
levels for cooking, heating, and space- heating
purposes.
 Biomass stoves can be classified in several ways,
based on their attributes, functions, material, fuel
types, etc. (FAO 1993).
 Based on various characteristics, stoves are classified
as follows.

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Fuel type Woody biomass, powdery biomass, briquettes,
cow dung, etc.
 Function Mono function or multi-function stoves
Construction material Metal, clay, ceramic, brick, etc.
Portability Portable (metallic or ceramic) or fixed (mud,
clay or brick)
Number of pots Single, two pots, three pots, etc.

A stove designed for a particular fuel and a particular

application can be used for different fuels and applications
but may not perform with the same effectiveness.

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 Design criteria:-
• A stove is a consumer-specific device.
• The effort on developing improved stoves is
mainly aimed at improving energy efficiency
(saving fuel) or reducing emissions (improving
working conditions and reducing an adverse
impact on health).
• While designing a stove, both engineering and
non-engineering or social parameters are
required to be considered.
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 Social factors:-
• The interlinking of various criteria for stove
design is shown in Figure 13.15.
• User need and availability of local biomass are
the two important social factors that need to be
taken into account while designing a stove.
• User needs would include factoring into the
design various cooking operations (boiling,
frying, baking, grilling, steaming, pressure-
cooking, etc.) that have to be performed on the
stove.
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Apart from this, it is also important to know the cooking time and the
process heat requirements, which would determine the power range for
the stove. Availability of local construction material, desired portability,
seasonal availability of local biomass, etc. also need to be considered
while designing a stove for the target group (Verhaart 1983).
Technical factors A high-performance stove should be efficient from
both the efficiency and the emission points of view. A fuel-efficient stove
could reduce the drudgery of collecting fuel while reduction in emissions
could save the users from the harmful impact due to exposure to smoke.
However, as mentioned earlier, the general strategy adopted in designing
an improved stove is improving the energy efficiency (by enhancing heat
transfer) and providing a chimney for the removal of smoke. Though this
strategy improves the fuel efficiency and also the quality of the indoor
air, the overall reduction in emissions is questionable.
Therefore, in addition to improving the heat transfer efficiency, it is
necessary to ensure improvement in the combustion efficiency whereby
unburned harmful pollutants can be minimized.
7
 Complete combustion can be ensured as
follows:

Maintaining higher temperatures in the

combustion chamber
Providing sufficient air and ensuring
proper mixing for complete combustion
Ensuring sufficient residence time for the
completion of combustion reactions
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 Asst.prof M.Lalu
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 Stove designing strategies:
• Forcing hot flue gases to flow past the surface area of a pot or griddle in a
narrow channel is a stove design strategy popularized by Dr Samuel
Baldwin and Dr Larry Wieniawski.
• The two stove designers approach the problem of sizing the channel gap
differently.
• Winiarski in Rocket Stove Design Principle 1997 advices designing a
stove by maintaining a constant cross-sectional area throughout the stove.
• Thus, the cross-sectional area at the opening into the fire is set first and
then appropriate gaps are created around the pots based on maintaining
the same cross-sectional area (Bailis, Damon, and Still 2004).
• The experimental data currently available suggests that a power density of
20 Wth/cm2 is feasible with chimney-less wood stoves and can be as high
as 50 Wth/cm2 (Verhaart 1981).
• The Baldwin design uses the high fire power of the stove as the starting
point and the size of the channelAsst.prof
09/13/2021 gap M.Lalu
is then determined accordingly. 10
 Process factors:

• Composition of several biomass materials in terms of

C–H–O content is quite similar on ash- and
moisture-free basis.
• But other parameters such as the moisture content
and volatile fraction have a profound effect on its
combustion characteristics.
• In addition, there are a number of other process
factors, which need to be considered while designing
the stove for maximizing efficiency and minimizing
emissions.
• Their effects are not easily.
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 Performance testing of biomass stoves:

• The overall thermal efficiency ( ηo)

• The stove is defined as the ratio of the amount of useful
heat absorbed for cooking food to the amount of energy
content in the fuel used (Khummomgkol 1986; Mande
and Lata 2001).
• It is a combination of partial efficiencies such as the
combustion efficiency (ηc) (fraction of energy content of
fuel converted into heat through its combustion),
• Heat transfer efficiency (ηh) (fraction of heat generated
that is transferred to the pot),
• And pot efficiency (ηp) (fraction of useful energy
actually used for cooking food).
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 Thus
ηo = Useful heat absorbed by food /Heat content of
biomass fuel used
ηo = ηc* ηp* ηh

The following three types of standard testing methods were

evolved after critical review in the workshop organized by
VITA (Volunteers in Technical Assistance).

I) WBT (water boiling test) under laboratory conditions

II) CCT (controlled cooking test) involving actual cooking
carried out in the laboratory
III) KPT (kitchen performance test) involving actual
cooking in an actual kitchen
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 Water boiling test:
• WBT recommended by VITA is the most commonly used
methodology to measure the power output of the stove and its
efficiency (VITA 1985).
• It tries to simulate the boiling and simmering operations
commonly used during cooking.
• A known quantity of water W is filled up to two-third level in a
vessel of known weight V and is heated from the temperature
Ta to boiling point Tb.
• The lid is kept closed, but is partially open during simmering.
• It is boiled for 15 minutes and then kept simmering
(maintaining temperature within 2 ºC of boiling point) for 60
minutes.
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 The stove efficiency η is computed using the following equation:
= W× η
where
dW is the amount of water evaporated,
Lw is the latent heat of water,
F is the amount of fuel burnt,
CV is the calorific value of fuel,
Cpw and Cpv are specific heat values of water and the vessel,
respectively.
 Recently, a modified WBT version 1.5 is being developed under
Shell HEH (Household Energy and Health) Programme (Bailis,
Damon, and Still 2004).
This consists of separate measurements under three different phases,
simulating various commonly used cooking processes instead of
giving a single efficiency number for a stove for indicating its
performance.
These
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• Phase 1: High power (cold start) Testing begins with the
stove at room temperature and uses a pre-weighed
bundle of wood to boil a measured quantity of water in
a standard pot.
• Phase 2: High power (hot start) The boiled water is then
replaced with a fresh pot of cold water to perform the
second phase of the test. Thus, water is now boiled on a
hot stove in order to identify the differences in the
performance of the stove in its hot and cold stages.
• Phase 3: Low power (simmering) A measured amount
of water is boiled and then, using a pre-weighed bundle
of wood, the water simmers at just below the boiling
point for a measured period of time (45 minutes).
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• This phase tries to simulate the common cooking
process that entails cooking of legumes or pulses.
For a multi-pot stove, only the primary pot will be
assessed for its performance during simmering of the
water.
• The combination of tests is intended to measure the
stove’s performance at both high and low power
outputs PH and PS, respectively, which are important
indicators of the stove’s ability to conserve fuel.
• Thus, rather than reporting a single number
indicating the thermal efficiency of the stove, which
alone cannot predict stove performance, this test is
designed to yield several numerical indicators
including the following.
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• Time to boil
• Fuel burning rate (kilogram per hour)
• Specific fuel consumption (kilogram per task)
• Turndown ratio (ratio of high to low power output)
• A well-designed stove should ideally perform with
the same efficiency over the entire power level
range.
• However, most stoves do not have such ideal
performance, making it necessary to evaluate stove
performance under maximum and minimum power
levels.
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 Controlled cooking test:

• This test essentially gives the fuel consumption of a given

stove for carrying out a typical cooking operation.
• It is done under laboratory conditions on a stove with a typical
vessel size and shape, normally used for cooking a typical
food of the region, using a commonly used cooking operation.
• The amount of fuel used up for cooking a known quantity of
food and the time required for cooking are measured.
• The test is repeated at least three to five times to get average
values.
• It can also be used to compare two different stoves for the
same cooking operation or compare stove performance for the
various cooking operations.

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 Kitchen performance test:
• This performance test is carried out in the field under real-life
conditions.
• The various cooking operations performed by the family during
cooking are monitored and recorded to arrive at the total fuel
consumption per meal per person.
• The test is performed for several days to get realistic average values.
• This test overcomes the drawback of stove performance for making
a typical meal and takes into account the stove performance for a
variety of cooking operations such as boiling, frying, roasting, etc.
encountered during meal preparation.
• Though, for theoretical analysis, this is too gross a test, but it gives a
realistic measure of stove performance comparison, namely, whether
the improved stove actually saves fuel under field conditions
(Prasad, Sangen, and Visser1985).
• All these tests can only be used for a relative comparison of
stoves for a given task under given operating conditions.
• These tests cannot be accepted universally for defining stove
efficiencies as a small variation in the cooking practice or
operating conditions would significantly affect the
performance.
• The procedure for determining the efficiency of the gas
stoves includes operating the stove at different constant
power levels, using the water boiling test for a turndown
ratio (ratio of maximum to minimum power output level).
• Though it is easy to operate gas stoves at different constant
power output levels, it is difficult and impractical to achieve
such conditions for wood burning stoves (Bussmann1988).
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 Emissions from biomass stoves:
• Among the numerous pollutants emitted from biomass stoves,
* the most important ones are carbon monoxide,
* TSP (total suspended particulates),
* PAH (polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons), and
* formaldehyde.
• Several design and operating parameters resulting in incomplete
combustion contribute to these emissions.
 These include:
* insufficient supply of combustion air,
* lower temperatures in the combustion zone,
* improper mixing of air and
* fuel, etc.
 Many times, some design modification to improve the thermal
performance or efficiency,
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 such as reducing the gap between the pan and the stove
mouth as well as between the pan and the grate, may
actually result in increased emissions.
 Therefore, there is need to take into consideration the
effect of any design modification on the stove as a whole.
 Generally, emissions are seen to increase with increasing
power levels.
 Similarly, higher emissions are observed with smaller
stoves.
 Often, this is due to the lower residence time of fuel in the
combustion chamber of the stove resulting in incomplete
combustion and hence higher emissions.
 Emission testing of biomass stoves:
• Emissions from the stoves with chimney are measured by
placing sensors in the flue gas path.
• For the majority of stoves without chimney, the sensors are
kept attached to the operator as emissions are measured to
assess their impact on the health of the operator.
• However, these are non-standard techniques and depend
upon the local conditions of ventilation, position of doors
and windows, direction of the wind, and The following
• two methods available for monitoring emissions from a
stove without chimney are commonly used
I) Hood method
II)09/13/2021
Chamber method 24
 Hood method:
• This is also called a direct method in which the stove is
kept in the enclosed hood.
• The monitoring of air supply is done through pre-defined
vents and the flue is extracted from the hood exit under
isokinetic sampling conditions (Figure 13.16).
• The measurement of flow rates through vents is quite
expensive and not very accurate with natural draft flows. If
air flow is induced using an exhaust fan then it can affect
the normal operation of the stove.
• Since it is not always possible to construct hood in situ
under field conditions, this method is normally used for
laboratory
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experiments. Asst.prof M.Lalu 25
 Chamber method:
• The chamber method, first proposed by Ahuja, Joshi, Smith, etal.
• (1987) is also called a simulated kitchen method or indirect method.
• This method can also be used in the field.
• However, for accurate measurements of emission performance using this
method, it is necessary to have relatively constant ventilation conditions
throughout the experimentation period.
• Pollutants near the stove and in the background room conditions are
measured for the particulate levels (using filter paper) and carbon
monoxide (using a sampler) at regular intervals throughout the experiment.
• The air exchange rate in the room is monitored using the standard
exponential carbon monoxide decay method (where the carbon monoxide
level is raised up to a certain level and its decay after its source is
monitored with time).
• Normally, emissions from various stoves are compared for a given standard
task rather than the emissions perAsst.prof
unitM.Lalu
fuel or heat output.
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 BIOMASS STOVES- IMPROVED CHULLAS
TRADITIONAL COOKING STOVE

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 Asst.prof M.Lalu
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 Fixed bed combustors:

• In fixed-bed systems, lumps of coal, usually size-graded

between 3 and 50 milli metres, are heaped onto a grate,
and preheated primary air (called under fire air) is blown
from under the bed to burn the fixed carbon.
 
• There are two prominent types of fixed bed combustion:
underfeed stokers and grate firings. With these methods of
combustion air is primarily supplied through the grate
from below, and initial combustion of solid fuel takes
place on the grate and some gasification occurs.
• This allows for secondary combustion in another chamber
above the first where secondary air is added.
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 Under feed Stokers:
• Generally only suitable for small-scale systems, underfeed stokers
are a relatively cheap and safe option for biomass combustion.
• They have the advantage of being easier to control than other
technologies, since load changes can be achieved quickly and with
relative simplicity due to the fuel feed method.
• Fuel is fed into the furnace from below by a screw conveyor and
then forced upwards onto the grate where combustion process
begins.
• Underfeed stokers are limited in terms of fuel type to low ash
content fuels such as wood chips.
• Due to ash removal problems it is not feasible to burn ash rich
biomass as this can affect the air flow into the chamber and cause
combustion conditions to become unstable.
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Principle of operation of underfeed stokers:
Inclined grate furnace:
Fluidized bed combustors:
 Fluidised Bed Combustion System-1

• In fluidized bed combustion, bio-fuel is dispersed

and burned in a fluidized bed of inert particles.
• Temperature of the bed is maintained in the range of
750 to1000oC so that combustion of the fuel is
completed but particle sintering is prevented.
• The gaseous products leave the bed at its operating
temperature, removing about 50Ot.
• of the heat generated.
 Fluidised Bed Combustion- 2

• The remainder of the heat is available for direct

transmission to heat transfer surfaces immersed with
in the bed; In boiler applications these comprise a
set of steam raising tubes.
• The heat transfer to immersed surfaces is uniformly
high in comparison with the variation of radiation
heat transfer through a conventional combustion
chamber.
• Consequently less heat transfer surface is required
for a given output and a boiler system occupies a
smaller volume.