Arab Political Systems

Prof. Hoda Mitkees

 Historical background:
OMAN
From the late 17th century, the Omani Sultanate was a powerful empire, vying
with the Portuguese Empire and the British Empire for influence in the
Persian Gulf and Indian Ocean. At its peak in the 19th century, Omani
influence or control extended across the Strait of Hormuz to modern-day
Iran and Pakistan, and as far south as Zanzibar. When its power declined in
the 20th century, the sultanate came under the influence of the United
Kingdom. For over 300 years, the relations built between the two empires
were based on mutual benefits. The UK recognized Oman's geographical
importance as a trading hub that secured their trading lanes in the Persian
Gulf and Indian Ocean and protected their empire in the Indian sub-
continent. Historically, Muscat was the principal trading port of the Persian
Gulf region. Muscat was also among the most important trading ports of the
Indian Ocean.

Sultan Qaboos bin Said al Said was the hereditary leader of the country,
which is an absolute monarchy, from 1970 until his death on 10 January
2020 His cousin, Haitham bin Tariq, was named as the country's new
ruler following his death.
 State Institutions/ Separation of Powers:
Executive Branch:
- The Sultanate of Oman is a hereditary monarchy.
A Basic Law was issued by royal decree and promulgated on November 6, 1996
•The sultan is the head of state. He:
-Presides over the Council of Ministers (or may appoint someone to do so).
- Appoints and dismisses Deputy Prime Ministers; Ministers; Under-Secretaries;
General Secretaries; Governors and those of their rank.
- Presides over the Specialised Councils or appoints chairmen for them.
- Appoints and dismisses senior judges.
- Holds the portfolios of defence, foreign affairs and finance.
- Issues and ratifies laws.
- May declare a state of emergency, general mobilization or war, and make peace
in accordance with the provisions of the Law.
- May sign international treaties in accordance with the provisions of the Law and
issue decrees ratifying them.
- May wave or commute punishments.
-Is the Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces.
-
- According to the Basic Law, succession will be determined by the Ruling
Family Council within three days of the position of Sultan becoming vacant.
If the Ruling Family Council does not agree on a successor, the Defence
Council shall confirm the appointment of the person designated by the
Sultan in his letter to the Family Council.
- • The prime minister:
The former late Sultan, Qaboos bin Said Al Said, has served as Prime Minister
since 1972. If the Sultan were to appoint a Prime Minister, his
competencies and powers would be specified in the decree appointing him.
- • The Council of Ministers: Is appointed by the Sultan.
- Formulates aims and general policies for economic, social and administrative
development and proposes methods of implementation of these policies.
- Proposes draft laws and decrees.
- Discusses developmental plans and Ministry proposals.
- Monitors the implementation of all laws, decrees, ordinances, decisions,
treaties, agreements and court judgments.
- Can only reach decisions when the majority of its members are present and
with the approval of the majority of those present. Its deliberations are
secret.
-Is responsible to the Sultan.
 Legislative branch:
The 1996 Basic Law established a bicameral parliament, the Council of
Oman, composed of the Consultative Council and the Council of State.
They function mainly in an advisory capacity, but have some power to
propose legislation.
- The Basic Law does not specify the powers of each of these Councils, the
length of their terms, the frequency of their sessions, or their rules of
procedure, but rather states that such matters will be established by the
law. The division of labour between the two consultative bodies is still
unclear.
- Plenary sessions of each council are held four times a year.
- All laws are issued by either royal or ministerial decree.
- The Council of Oman does not include government officials or civil servants.
- Both chambers are independent of each other financially and
administratively.
- chamber prepared by the Office of that chamber and presented by its
president. An annual report is also presented by the presidents of each
chamber to the Sultan.
 • The Council of State (Majlis al-Dawla) :
Is an advisory body established in 1997, whose main function is to liaise
between the government and citizens.
- Prepares studies that help in executing development plans, and is charged
with finding the solutions for financial, social and economic problems.
- Presents proposals to encourage investment and to streamline political and
administrative processes.
- Reviews the draft laws proposed by the government and presents its opinions
to the Sultan and his ministers in cooperation with the Consultative Council.
- Has 59 members appointed by the Sultan (including nine women).
Membership may not exceed that of the Majlis ash-Shura. Members are
appointed for three year renewable terms.
 • The Consultative Council (Majlis ash-Shura):
Is an advisory body inaugurated in 1991 with limited powers to propose
legislation. Its main function is to review and comment on draft economic
and social legislation prepared by the ministries in accordance with the Five
Year Plan. It also examines drafts proposed by the Sultan. It is not invited
to express its views on defence, foreign policy or any other sensitive topic.
- May call ministers for questioning.
- Is responsible to the Sultan and the Council of Ministers.
 Judiciary:
•The legal system in Oman is based primarily on the Sharia traditions of the
Ibadi school of Islam. Since 1996, royal decrees have tried to codify laws
and bring the judiciary into line with the Basic Law.
•Oman’s Basic Law provides for an independent judiciary. However, the
executive branch strongly influences the judiciary. The Sultan makes all
judicial appointments and presides over the Supreme Judicial Council.
-The Supreme Judicial Council oversees the judiciary; formulates judicial policy
and ensures the independence of the judiciary. It is chaired by the Sultan.
 Local Government :
Oman is divided into 59 provinces (wilayats) presided over by appointed
executives (walis) responsible for coordinating government activities in their
area. There are three Governorates of Muscat, Dhofar and Musandam,
where 15 Walis report to the appropriate Governor. The Governors of
Muscat and Dhofar are also Ministers of State. There are 44 Walis in other
parts of the Sultanate, who are responsible to the Ministry of the Interior.
•There are 45 municipalities concerned with services in the areas of
infrastructure overseen by the Ministry of Regional Municipalities,
Environment and Water Resources (MRMEWR).
•None of the levels of local governance has significant autonomy. Provision of local
public services such as parks, wastewater management, and pest control is the
responsibility of the central government. Oman does not hold municipal or any other
 Political parties :
Political parties are not permitted.
 Civil society In oman:
Civil society is limited and weak. There are about a dozen registered NGOs and
42 government approved women’s associations (some are partially
government funded). The average time required to register an NGO is two
years.
- The government has not permitted the establishment of independent human
rights organizations.
- The main professional association is the Chamber of Commerce and Industry.
- Industry associations, professional syndicates and trades unions are banned.

Oman is a member of the United Nations, the Arab League, the Gulf Cooperation
Council, the Non-Aligned Movement and the Organisation of Islamic
Cooperation. It has sizeable oil reserves, ranking 25th globally In 2010, the
United Nations Development Programme ranked Oman as the most improved
nation in the world in terms of development during the preceding 40 years.A
significant portion of its economy involves tourism and trading fish, dates and
other agricultural produce. Oman is categorized as a high-income economy
and ranks as the 69th most peaceful country in the world according to the
Global Peace Index.