COMPUTER ORGANIZATION AND ARCHITECTURE

(18CIC33)
BRIDGE COURSE

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 INTRODUCTION

DIGITAL COMPUTER, DIGITAL LOGIC DIGITAL

LOGIC DESIGN

NUMBER SYSTEM , TYPES OF NUMBER SYSTEM

NUMBER BASE CONVERSION

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DIGITAL COMPUTER:
A digital computer stores data in terms of digits (numbers) and
proceeds in discrete steps from one state to the next.

 The states of a digital computer typically involve binary digits

which may take the form of the presence or absence of
magnetic markers in a storage medium, on-off switches or
relays.

 In digital computers, even letters, words and whole texts are

represented digitally.

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DIGITAL LOGIC:
 Digital Logic is the basis of electronic systems, such as
computers and cell phones.

 Digital Logic is rooted in binary code, a series of zeroes and

ones each having an opposite value.

 Digital Logic gate functions include and, or and not. The value
system translates input signals into specific output.

 Digital Logic facilitates computing, robotics and other

electronic applications.

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DIGITAL LOGIC DESIGN:
o A digital computer stores data in terms of digits (numbers) and proceeds
in discrete steps from one state to the next.
 Digital Logic Design is foundational to the fields of electrical
engineering and computer engineering.
 Digital Logic designers build complex electronic components that use
both electrical and computational characteristics.
 These characteristics may involve power, current, logical function,
protocol and user input.
 Digital Logic Design is used to develop hardware, such as circuit boards
and microchip processors.
 This hardware processes user input, system protocol and other data in
computers, navigational systems, cell phones or other high-tech
systems.
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NUMBER SYSTEM
 In a digital system, the system can understand only the optional
number system. In these systems, digits symbols are used to
represent different values, depending on the index from which it
settled in the number system.

 In simple terms, for representing the information, we use the

number system in the digital system.

 The digit value in the number system is calculated using:

 The digit.,
 The index, where the digit is present in the number.,
 Finally, the base numbers, the total number of digits available in the
number system.
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TYPES OF NUMBER SYSTEM
 In the digital computer, there are various types of number systems
used for representing information:
 (a) Binary Number System
 (b) Decimal Number System
 (c) Octal Number System
 (d) Hexadecimal Number System

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TYPES OF NUMBER SYSTEM
(a) Binary Number System
 A binary number system is used in the digital computers.

 In this number system, it carries only two digits: either ‘0’ or ‘1’.

 There are two types of electronic pulses present in a binary number

system:
 The first one is the absence of an electronic pulse representing '0‘.
 The second one is the presence of electronic pulse representing '1'.
 Each digit is known as a bit. 

 A four-bit collection (1101) is known as a nibble, and a collection of

eight bits (1100 1010) is known as a byte.
 The location of a digit in a binary number represents a specific power of
the base (2) of the number system.

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TYPES OF NUMBER SYSTEM
(a) Binary Number System – Characteristics:
 It holds only two values, i.e., either ‘0’ or ‘1’.

 It is also known as the base 2 number system.

 The position of a digit represents the ‘0’ power of the base(2).

Example: 206

 The position of the last digit represents the ‘x’ power of the base(2).
Example: 2x, where ‘x’ represents the last position, i.e., 1.

 Examples of binary number system:

(10100)2, (11011)2, (11001)2, (000101)2, (011010)2. 9
TYPES OF NUMBER SYSTEM
(b) Decimal Number System:
 The decimal number system contains ten digits from 0 to 9(base 10).

 The position in the decimal number system specifies the power of the
base (10).

 The 0 is the minimum value of the digit, and 9 is the maximum value of
the digit.
 For example: the decimal number 2541 consist of the digit 1 in the unit
position, 4 in the tens position, 5 in the hundreds position, and 2 in the
thousand positions and the value will be written as:

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TYPES OF NUMBER SYSTEM
(c) Octal Number System:
 The octal number system has base 8(means it has only eight digits from
0 to 7).

 There are only eight possible digit values to represent a number. With
the help of only three bits, an octal number is represented. 

 Each set of bits has a distinct value between 0 and 7.

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TYPES OF NUMBER SYSTEM
(c) Octal Number System - Characteristics
 An octal number system carries eight digits starting from 0, 1, 2, 3, 4,
5, 6, and 7.

 It is also known as the base (8) number system.

 The position of a digit represents the 0 power of the base(8). Example:

80

 The position of the last digit represents the x power of the base(8).
Example: 8x, where x represents the last position, i.e., 1

 Examples of Octal Decimal Number System:

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(273)8, (5644)8, (0.5365)8, (1123)8, (1223)8
TYPES OF NUMBER SYSTEM
(c) Octal Number System:

Number Octal Number

0 000
1 001
2 010
3 011
4 100
5 101
6 110
7 111

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TYPES OF NUMBER SYSTEM
(d) Hexadecimal Number System:
 It is another technique to represent the number in the digital system
called the hexadecimal number system.

 The number system has a base of 16 means there are total 16

symbols(0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, F) used for
representing a number.

 The single-bit representation of decimal values10, 11, 12, 13, 14, and
15 are represented by A, B, C, D, E, and F.

 Only 4 bits are required for representing a number in a hexadecimal

number.
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 Each set of bits has a distinct value between 0 and 15. 

TYPES OF NUMBER SYSTEM
(d) Hexadecimal Number System: - Characteristics
 It has ten digits from 0 to 9 and 6 letters from A to F.

 The letters from A to F defines numbers from 10 to 15.

 It is also known as the base 16 number system.

 In hexadecimal number, the position of a digit represents the 0 power

of the base(16).
Example: 160
 In hexadecimal number, the position of the last digit represents the x
power of the base(16). Example: 16x, where x represents the last
position, i.e., 1

 Examples of Hexadecimal Number System:

(FAC2)16, (564)16, (0ABD5)16, (1123)16, (11F3)16.
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TYPES OF NUMBER SYSTEM
(d) Hexadecimal Number System:

Binary Hexadecimal Binary Number Hexadecimal

Number Number Number
0000 0 1000 8
0001 1 1001 9
0010 2 1010 A
0011 3 1011 B
0100 4 1100 C
0101 5 1101 D
0110 6 1110 E
0111 7 1111 F

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NUMBER BASE CONVERSION
 We have four types of number systems so each one can be
converted into the remaining three systems. There are the
following conversions possible in Number System:  
 Binary to other Number Systems.
 Decimal to other Number Systems.
 Octal to other Number Systems.
 Hexadecimal to other Number Systems.

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NUMBER BASE CONVERSION

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SIGNED & UNSIGNED BINARY
NUMBERS

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SIGNED & UNSIGNED BINARY NUMBERS
 The integer variables are represented in a signed and unsigned
manner.

 The positive and negative values are differentiated by using the

sign flag in signed numbers.

 The unsigned numbers do not use any flag for the sign, i.e., only
positive numbers can be stored by the unsigned numbers.

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BINARY NUMBER REPRESENTATION
 Our computer can understand only (0, 1) language.

 The binary numbers are represented in both ways, i.e., signed and
unsigned.

 The positive numbers are represented in both ways- signed and

unsigned, but the negative numbers can only be described in a
signed way. 

 The difference between unsigned and signed numbers is that

unsigned numbers do not use any sign bit for positive and
negative numbers identification, but the signed number used.
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BINARY NUMBER REPRESENTATION

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UNSIGNED NUMBERS
 There is no sign bit in unsigned binary numbers so it can only
represent its magnitude.
 In zero and one, zero is an unsigned binary number. There is only
one zero (0) in this representation, which is always positive.
 Because of one unique binary equivalent form of a number in
unsigned number representation, it is known as unambiguous
representation technique.
 The range of the unsigned binary numbers starts from 0 to (2 n -
1).

 Example: Represent the decimal number 102 in unsigned binary

numbers.
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UNSIGNED NUMBERS - EXAMPLE
 Example: Represent the decimal number 102 in unsigned binary
numbers.
Decimal Operation Result Remainder
102 102/2 51 0
51 51/2 25 1
25 25/2 12 1
12 12/2 6 0
6 6/2 3 0
3 3/2 1 1
1 1/2 0 1

 So the binary number of (102)10 is (1100110)2, a 7-bit magnitude

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of the decimal number 102.
SIGNED NUMBERS
 The signed numbers have a sign bit so that it can differentiate
positive and negative integer numbers.
 The signed binary number technique has both the sign bit and the
magnitude of the number.
 The signed numbers are represented in three ways. The signed bit
makes two possible representations of zero (positive (0) and
negative (1)), which is an ambiguous representation. The third
representation is 2's complement representation in which no
double representation of zero is possible, which makes it
unambiguous representation.

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 BOOLEAN ALGEBRA

PROPERTIES OF BOOLEAN ALGEBRA

PRINCIPLE OF DUALITY

BOOLEAN FUNCTION SIMPLIFICATION

LOGIC GATES

UNIVERSAL GATES

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BOOLEAN ALGEBRA
o The logical symbol 0 and 1 are used for representing the digital
input or output.

o The symbols "1" and "0" can also be used for a permanently open
and closed digital circuit.

o The digital circuit can be made up of several logic gates.

o To perform the logical operation with minimum logic gates, a set

of rules were invented, known as the Laws of Boolean Algebra.

o The Boolean algebra is mainly used for simplifying and

analyzing the complex Boolean expression. 27
RULES IN BOOLEAN ALGEBRA
 Only two values(1 for high and 0 for low) are possible for the
variable used in Boolean algebra.

 The overbar(-) is used for representing the complement variable.

So, the complement of variable C is represented as .

 The plus(+) operator is used to represent the ORing of the

variables.

 The dot(.) operator is used to represent the ANDing of the

variables.

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PROPERTIES OF BOOLEAN ALGEBRA
Boolean Algebra Rule :
 Operation with 0 and 1:
A + 0 = A , A + 1 = 1 , A •1 = A , A •0 = 0
 Idempotent Law: A + A = A , A •A = A
 Complementary Law: A + A' = 1 , A •A' = 0
 Commutative Law: A + B = B + A , A •B = B •A
 Associative Law:
A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C , A •( B •C) = (A •B) •C
 Distributive Law:
A •( B+ C) = (A •B) + (A •C) , A + (B •C) = (A +B) •(A +C)
 De-Morgan's Law: (A + B)' = A' •B’, (A •B )’= A’+ B’
 General Form:
(A1+ A2+ A3+ …An)' = A1' •A2' •A3' •…An’ 29

(A1•A2•A3•…An) ' = A1' + A2' + A3' + …An’

PRINCIPLE OF DUALITY
 To get dual of the expression, we have to replace:
 OR with AND ( + -> . )
 AND with OR ( . -> + )
 1 with 0
 0 with 1

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BOOLEAN FUNCTION SIMPLIFICATION

Expression 1: F= AB’+ C’D + AB’+ C’D

= x + x (let x= AB’+ C’D)
= x= AB’+ C’D

Expression 2: F= ABC + ABC’+ A’C

= AB(C + C’) + A’C
= AB + A’C

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LOGIC GATES
 Logic gates play an important role in circuit design and digital
systems.

 It is a building block of a digital system and an electronic circuit

that always have only one output.

 These gates can have one input or more than one input, but most
of the gates have two inputs.

 There are different types of logic gates:

(a) AND Gate
(b) OR Gate
(c ) NOT Gate
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(d) XOR Gate
(e) XNOR Gate
(A) AND GATE
 The AND gate is a circuit that performs the AND operation of the
inputs. This gate has a minimum of 2 input values and an output value.

(B)
TheOR GATE
OR gate is a circuit which performs the OR operation of the inputs.
This gate also has a minimum of 2 input values and an output value.

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(C) NOT GATE
 The NOT gate is also called an inverter. This gate gives the inverse
value of the input value as a result. This gate has only one input and
one output value.

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(D) XOR GATE
 The XOR gate is also known as the Ex-OR gate. The XOR gate is used
in half and full adder and subtractor.

 The exclusive-OR gate is sometimes called as EX-OR and X-OR gate.

 This gate can have two or more than two input values and only one
output value.

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(E) XNOR GATE
 The XNOR gate is also known as the Ex-NOR gate. The XNOR gate is
used in half and full adder and subtractor.

 The exclusive-NOR gate is sometimes called as EX-NOR and X-NOR

gate.

 This gate can have two or more than two input values and only one
output value.

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UNIVERSAL GATES
 A universal gate is a gate which can implement any Boolean
function without need to use any other gate type. 

 There are different types of logic gates:

(a) NAND Gate
(b) NOR Gate

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(A) NAND GATE
 The NAND gate is the combination of AND gate and NOT gate.

 This gate gives the same result as a NOT-AND operation.

 This gate can have two or more than two input values and only one
output value.

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(B) NOR GATE
 The NOR gate is the combination of an OR gate and NOT gate.

 This gate gives the same result as the NOT-OR operation.

 This gate can have two or more than two input values and only one
output value.

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COMBINATIONAL & SEQUENTIAL CIRCUITS

COMBINATIONAL CIRCUITS

SEQUENTIAL CIRCUITS

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COMBINATIONAL CIRCUITS
 Combinational circuit is a circuit in which we combine the different
gates in the circuit.

 For example: encoder, decoder, multiplexer and de-multiplexer.

 Some of the characteristics of combinational circuits are following :

 The output of combinational circuit at any instant of time, depends
only on the levels present at input terminals.
 The combinational circuit do not use any memory. The previous
state of input does not have any effect on the present state of the
circuit.
 A combinational circuit can have an n number of inputs and m
number of outputs.
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COMBINATIONAL CIRCUITS
 The block Diagram of Combinational Circuit is shown below:

 Few Combinational circuits are:

 Half Adder, Half Subtractor
 Full Adder
 N-Bit Parallel Adder, N-Bit Parallel Subtractor
 Multiplexer, De-multiplexer
 Encoder, Decoder
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SEQUENTIAL CIRCUITS
 The combinational circuit does not use any memory.

 Hence, the previous state of input does not have any effect on the
present state of the circuit.

 But sequential circuit has memory so output can vary based on input.

 This type of circuits uses previous input, output, clock and a memory
element.

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SEQUENTIAL CIRCUITS
 The block Diagram of Sequential Circuit is shown below:

 Few Sequential circuits are:

 Flip-flops
 Counters
 Registers

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