INSTRUMENT

LANDING
SYSTEM (ILS)
 History of ILS

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• ILS is stand for Instrument Landing System.
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Scheduled service would be impossible without a way

to land in poor weather.
The first scheduled passenger airliner to land
using ILS was in 1938.
 History of ILS
• Tests of the first ILS began in 1929
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• The first scheduled passenger airliner to land using ILS was in 1938.
A Pennsylvania-Central Airlines Boeing 247-D from Washington to
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Pittsburgh.
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• In 1949, ICAO adapted an ILS standard developed by the US Army
as a standard system for all of its member countries.
Help • 1958-First IFR landing system developed
• 1966-First ILS system developed and tested at AIRPORT in USA
• 1968-First ILS applications installed at major airports
• 1974-ILS systems mandated by FAA for at least two major runways
at all Regional, and International Airports.
 Poor Visibility Landings

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 The Uses of ILS
• To provide an aircraft with a precision final approach.
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Provide both horizontal and vertical guidance.
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• To guide the pilot to perform landing.
Next – It is very helpful when visibility is limited and the
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pilot cannot see the airport and runway.
• To help the aircraft to a runway touchdown point.
• To ensure flight safety.
 Precision Runway (P)

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Aiming
point
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Touchdown
zone

Designators

Threshold
 Precision Runway (P) Categories

Home • Runway Threshold: Beginning of runway for landing.

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• Touchdown zone: The first point for the aircraft should

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touch the runway during landing.
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• Aiming point: serves as a visual aiming point for a

landing aircraft.
 ILS Components
• ILS components consists of Ground Installations and
Home Aircraft Equipments

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• Ground:
1. Ground Localizer (LLZ) Antenna – To provide
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horizontal navigation
Help 2. Ground Glide path (GP) Antenna – To provide
vertical navigation
• Aircraft Equipments
1. LLZ and GP antennas located on the aircraft nose.
2. ILS indicator inside the cockpit
 ILS Components

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ILS Indicator inside the

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Ground Localizer
Ground Glide Path Antenna
Antenna
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ILS INDICATOR IN THE

COCKPIT
 ILS Indicator

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Deviation from runway centre
Help line

Glide path indicator

Deviation from optimal
glide path
 Localizer Indication

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Needle indicates direction of runway.

Centered Needle = Correct Alignment
 Localizer Indication

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• The vertical needle is the localizer indicator.
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• It provides the pilot with information required
Next for horizontal.
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• The localizer needle is tracked horizontally by
adjusting the position aircraft in the direction of
the needle (fly right or fly left).
 Glide Path Indications

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Needle indicates above/below glide path.

Centered Needle = Correct Glide path
 Glide Path Indications

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• The horizontal needle is the glide path
Previous indicator.
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• It provides the pilot with information required
for vertical guidance.
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• The glide path needle is tracked vertically by

adjusting the rate of descent in the direction of
the needle (fly up or fly down).
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ILS GROUND INSTALLATIONS

 Localizer
• Localizer is the horizontal antenna array located at the opposite end of the runway.
Home • Localizer operates in VHF band between 108 to 111.975 MHz.
• Normal reliable coverage of localizers is between 10 nm to 25nm.
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 Glide Path
Home • Glide Path is the vertical
antenna located on one
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side of the runway about
Next 300 m to the end of
runway.
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• Glide Path operates in
UHF band between
329.15 and 335 MHz
• The GP signals coverage
extends to a distance of
10nm.
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ILS PRINCIPLES
 How ILS works?
• Ground localizer antenna transmit VHF signal in direction
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opposite of runway to horizontally guide aircraft to the runway
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centre line.
• Ground Glide Path antenna transmit UHF signal in vertical
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direction to vertically guide aircraft to the touchdown point.
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• Localizer and Glide Path antenna located at aircraft nose
receives both signals and sends it to ILS indicator in the cockpit.
• These signals activate the vertical and horizontal needles inside
the ILS indicator to tell the pilot either go left/right or go
up/down.
• By keeping both needles centered, the pilot can guide his
aircraft down to end of landing runway aligned with the
runway center line and aiming the touch down.
 Factors affected ILS signals

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Although the ILS system is very accurate and precise, it is very
sensitive and its operation can be adversely affected by weather,
Previous FM broadcasts and vehicle/aircraft movement on the ground.
• Weather
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Snow and heavy rain attenuates the ILS signals thereby

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reducing the accuracy.
• FM broadcasts
FM transmitters (radio stations) have wide bandwidths and it is
possible for such stations transmitting on same frequencies that
causing interference with the ILS signals.
• Vehicle or aircraft movement on the ground.
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MARKER BEACONS
 Marker Beacons

Home • Marking beacon is function as ILS markers. It consists

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Outer , Middle and Inner Markers.

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• It functions to enable the pilot cross check the
Help aircraft’s position.

• When the aircraft is passing over the marker beacons,

they are indicated by light illumination and Morse
Code tone through the cockpit speaker or headphones.
 Marker Beacons

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 Marker Beacons Lights in cockpit

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Marker beacon Cockpit light Identification Volume pitch

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Outer marker Blue 2 dashes / second Low

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Alternate dots and dashes

Middle marker Amber Medium
3 / second

Inner marker White 6 dots / second High

 Marker Beacons

Home Outer marker

• The outer marker should be located about 7km from the
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threshold.
• The cockpit indicator is a blue lamp that flashes accordingly
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with the received audio code.
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Middle marker
• Ideally at a distance of 1km from the threshold.
• The cockpit indicator is an amber lamp that flashes in
accordingly with the received audio code.
Inner marker
• Located at the beginning (threshold) of the runway .
• The cockpit indicator is a white lamp that flashes in
accordingly with the received audio code.
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MICROWAVE LANDING
SYSTEM
 What is MLS?

Home • MLS (Microwave Landing System) is an advanced landing

system. MLS operates in the Super High Frequency (SHF)
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between 5.031 to 5.090GHz.
Next • MLS was developed in 1978 to improve the uses of ILS
system. It was chosen to replace ILS and installation date
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fixed to be 1995.
• However , advances in GPS system led to the expectations
in many countries that the life of ILS could be extended
until GPS would provide accurate landing guidance.
• Thus, only few countries installed MLS.
 Distance
Measuring
Equipment (DME)
 Definition

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• DME stands for Distance Measuring
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• DME is a type of en-route navigation system for
aircraft.
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• DME often installed near VOR stations so as to

provide combined bearing and distance.
• When DME is installed with the VOR, it is referred
to as a VOR/DME.
 The uses of DME

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• DME provides the physical distance
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from the aircraft to the ground DME
Next antenna expressed in Nautical Miles
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(NM).
• DME also calculates ground speed and
the time needed to reach the station if
the aircraft is fitted with appropriate
computer.
 DME System Components:

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The DME system consists of three basic
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components which are:
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• DME antenna on the aircraft body
• DME indicator in the cockpit
• Ground DME Antenna
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DME INDICATOR IN THE

COCKPIT
 DME Indicator
• DME enables aircraft to establish its range to the ground
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station: Distance in nautical miles, Ground speed in knots,
Previous Flying time to the station in minutes

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DME PRINCIPLE
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 How DME works?
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• Ground DME antenna sent out signal to Aircraft’s
DME antenna
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• . Aircraft’s DME antenna receive and respond back
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• The system operates in the ultra-high frequency
(UHF).
• DME receiver inside the cockpit then measures the
distance from the aircraft to the ground DME
antenna.
• Then, the computed distance is displayed through
DME indicator in the cockpit.
 How DME works?
Home • The distance formula is also used by the DME receiver
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to calculate the distance from DME station in Nautical
Miles.
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• Distance formula=theorem Pythagoras
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 Advantages of DME

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• DME is extremely accurate: Provide continuous
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distance.
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• Aircraft Handling Capability: The transponder

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equipment should be capable of handling 100
to 200 aircrafts.
• Large coverage: DME facility provides coverage
up to 200 NM.
 VHF
Omnidirectional
Range (VOR)

By: Zuliana Ismail, 2010

 Home

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 Introduction
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• VOR, short for VHF Omni-directional Range, is a type of radio
Previousnavigation system for aircraft.

• VOR provide MAGNETIC BEARING information to and from the

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station.
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• “Omni-” means all and an Omni-directional range means VOR
station transmits signal in all directions.

• VOR function as marking for the BEGINNING, CENTER-LINE and

the END of airways.
• In short word, VOR guide an aircraft from point A to point B, from
point B to point C.
 VOR Equipment
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Previous VOR antenna at vertical

tail of aircraft
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VOR aircraft equipment

-VOR antenna at
vertical tail of aircraft
-VOR receiver & indicator
inside cockpit

VOR Ground Station (antenna)

 VOR Ground Antenna
Stationa
ry
Home Rotating
Antenna Antenna
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s s
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VOR station for broadcast the signal

 VOR ground antenna
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• The VOR ground antenna is oriented to magnetic

north.
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• Consists of :
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Help – Single Stationary Antenna at the centre

– Rotating antennas
• It produces 360° radials/tracks at 1° spacing.
• These 360 bearings are known as RADIALS
• VOR ground installations are strategically located
along air routes and airport to ensure continuity of
guidance.
 RADIALS

Home 360 Magnetic North

315 045
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135º
270 Help 090

135
225

180
PRINCIPLE OPERATION OF
VOR
 How VOR works
• VOR receiver in the cockpit is tuning to the specific
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frequencies assigned for that VOR ‘s airport.
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• It is VHF frequency which is between 108-117.95 MHz.
• After entering the frequency, the volume control should be
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turned up in order to confirm that the three letter

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identification code (Morse Code) is correct.

– For example, KLIA airport has a VOR known as VKL-Victor Kilo Lima
• The VOR station on the ground transmits two signals at
the same time; one signal is constant in all directions,
while the other signal is rotated about a point.
• One from stationary antenna, while the other from rotating
antenna.
 How VOR works

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• When aircraft receives these two signals, an aircraft VOR

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receiver electronically measures the phase angle different
between these two signals.
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• This phase angle different is translated as the MAGNETIC

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BEARING which tell the pilot the aircraft angle direction

to the VOR station.
• This bearing angle also known as RADIALS.
 Home

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 Home

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 VOR indicator
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 Advantages of VOR
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• More accurate & precise flying:

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– The accuracy of course alignment of the VOR is excellent,
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being generally plus or minus 1 degree.
• Reliable:
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– Can be used day and night.

• Multiple number of route :
– Provide multiple number of route ‘towards’ or away from
each station.
– These routes are like invisible highways , which the pilot
can navigate to or away from any location.
 Disadvantages of VOR

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• Signals can not be received at low altitudes (below 1000ft)
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• VORs are sensitive to the interference of terrain. The

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nearest mountains and buildings cause the VOR bearings

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to be stopped and interrupted.

• Other disadvantages is VOR equipments are costly to

maintain.
 Automatic Direction
Finder (ADF)
&
Non Directional Beacon
(NDB)

By: Zuliana Ismail ,

 INTRODUCTION TO NDB & ADF
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Automatic Directional Finder

Non Directional Beacon

 Definition
• ADF is stand for Automatic Direction Finder.
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• NDB is stand for Non Directional Beacon.
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• ADF & NDB is the one of the older types of radio

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navigation system that still in use today.

• They still in use today because of its simplicity.

• As it name, the signal transmitted by NDB does not

included directional information, but ADF automatica
searching for NDB signal.
 ADF & NDB Equipments

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• Non Directional Beacon (NDB) is used in conjunction

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with Automatic Direction Finder (ADF) in the cockpit.
Next • ADF equipments consists of 1) ADF antenna
(transmitter & receiver) outside aircraft’s body, 2) an
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ADF indicator inside the cockpit.
• NDB equipment only consist of ground NDB antenna
located near the airport (airfield area).
• ADF determines the direction to ground NDB station.
 ADF & NDB Equipment

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ADF indicator inside ADF antenna outside

the cockpit aircraft ‘s body

Ground NDB stations is the Tall

antenna located near the
airfield
 Purpose

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• The purpose of ADF/NDB is to provide aid for aircraft

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navigation by providing bearing information of
Next aircraft location to the airport. (aircraft direction or
heading to the airport in degrees(angle))
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• **Bearing: the angle which measured in a clockwise

direction.
• NDB bearings provide a consistent method for
defining paths aircraft can fly. NDB can define
"airways" in the sky.
 NDB Frequencies

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• ICAO has assigned Low Frequency (LF) and

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Medium Frequency (MF) band for NDB,
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• It is within 200 – 1750 KHz.
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• However, most of NDB equipments are found
operating within frequency band of 200-525 KHz.
 How ADF & NDB works
• NDB station radiates a non-directional signal in all
directions around its antenna (transmitter).
• Station identification code(Callsign) in the form Morse
Code is also transmitted by the NDB.
• An ADF selector in aircraft will tune to NDB’s frequency
in order to search its signals.
• After NDB call sign is identified, the direction of aircraft
in BEARING to the NDB station will be indicated.
• ADF indicator in the cockpit, it will display the bearing to
the NDB station relative to the heading of the aircraft.
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 The uses of NDB
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• Used for FLYING FROM NDB or HOMING TO

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NDB when maintaining airway centre-lines.
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• Used for en-route navigational bearing

• Used for HOLDING system before landing.

• Used as markers for an Instrument Landing

System (ILS) approach
 FLYING FROM or HOMING TO NDB station
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Flying From
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Homing To
 En-Route Navigation
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• Aircraft must maintain their heading using the Automatic Direction
PreviousFinding (ADF) in the cockpit.

• Pilot must always watch the relative bearing indicator to maintain

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the airway center line.
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 Holding System
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 Advantages of NDB
Home • NDB signal can be received at low altitudes.
Previous • This is because NDB signal is based on surface wave
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propagation (signal not limited to ‘line of sight’ ).
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• NDB also can be used as the Back-Up system. For
example, during no signal given by the VHF Omni-
directional Range (VOR) system.
• NDB system only requires low cost for their
maintenances.
• NDB still important for many small airports.
 Disadvantages of NDB

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• Limited Signal because of several factors including:
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1. Interference Effect
Next 2. Thunderstorm Effect
Help 3. Mountain Effect
4. Night Effect
5. Coastal Refractions