FLUID PRESSURE AND

ITS MEASUREMENT
HYDRAULICS
MODULE-I
Fluid pressure at a point
• Pressure or intensity of pressure may be defined as the force exerted
on a unit area.
• If F represents the total force uniformly distributed over an area A,
the pressure at any point is p=(F/A)
• When the pressure varies from point to point on an area, the
magnitude of pressure at any point can be obtained by the following
expression
• P=(dF/dA)
• Where dF= Force acting on an infinitesimal area dA
Units of Pressure
• The S.I unit of pressure is N/m2. N/m2 is known as Pascal and is
represented by Pa.
• Other commonly used units of pressure are
• kPa = kilo Pascal = 1000 N/m2
• bar =100 kPa=105 N/m2
Pressure of a fluid
• A fluid is a substance capable of flowing. We know that a fluid needs a
container to store it. When a fluid is contained in a vessel, it exerts
force on the supporting surface of the container. The force so exerted
always acts in the direction normal to the surface in contact.
• The normal force so exerted by a fluid per unit area of the surface is
called fluid pressure/pressure intensity/hydrostatic pressure.
• If F = The force and A= Area on which the force acts; then intensity of
pressure =F/A
Pressure head of a fluid
• A liquid is subjected to pressure due to its own weight, this pressure
increases as the depth of the liquid increases.
• Consider a mass of liquid contained in a vessel of uniform cross
sectional area A and depth h. Let the specific weight of the liquid be
w.
•  Total weight of liquid column = specific Weight X volume
=w Ah
• Pressure ‘p’ at depth h =
P=
p= wh
• Within a body of fluid at rest, the pressure increases in the downward
direction at the rate equivalent to the specific weight w of the liquid.
While the pressure remains constant over a horizontal plane in a fluid.
• As p= w h, the intensity of pressure in a liquid due to its depth will
vary directly with depth.
• h=
The intensity of pressure of a liquid may be expressed in the following
two ways.
• As the force per unit area and
• In terms of meters of liquid column.
Problem 1:
The pressure intensity at a point in a fluid is given as 6.4X105. Find the
corresponding
• Equivalent water height
• Equivalent height of liquid having specific gravity 0.78
• Equivalent Mercury head
Problem 2:
• An oil of specific gravity 0.9 is contained in a vessel. At a point the
height of oil is 40 m. Find the corresponding height of water at the
point.
Problem 3:
An open tank contains water up to a height of 2m and above it an oil of
specific gravity 0.9 for a depth of 1 m. Find the pressure intensity
a) At the interface of two liquids and
b) At the bottom of the tank
Pascal’s Law
• The Pascal’s law states as follows:
• The intensity of pressure at any point in
a liquid at rest, is the same in all
directions. In other words, when a
certain pressure is applied at any point
in a fluid at rest, the pressure is
equally transmitted in all the directions
and to every other point in the fluid.
• This fact was established by B. Pascal, a
French Mathematician in 1653, and
accordingly it is known as Pascal’s law.
Atmospheric, Absolute, Gauge and Vacuum pressures
• The atmospheric pressure air exerts a normal pressure upon all surfaces with
which it is in contact, and it is known as atmospheric pressure.
• The atmospheric pressure varies with the altitude and it can be measured by
means of a barometer. As such it is called the barometric pressure.
• At sea level under normal conditions the equivalent values of the atmospheric
pressure are 10.1043 x 104 N/m2 or 10.3 m of water or 76 cm of Mercury
• Fluid pressure can be measured with respect to any arbitrary datum. The two
most common datums used are
• i) absolute zero pressure and ii) Local atmospheric pressure
• When pressure is measured above absolute zero (or complete
vacuum), it is called an absolute pressure.
• When it is measured either above or below atmospheric pressure as a
datum, it is called gauge pressure.
• Gauge pressures are positive if they are above that of the atmosphere
and negative if they are below atmospheric pressure. The negative
gauge pressure is Vacuum pressure.
• If the pressure of a fluid is below atmospheric pressure it is
designated as vacuum pressure (or suction pressure or negative gauge
pressure)
Absolute pressure = atmospheric pressure + Gage pressure
Absolute pressure = atmospheric pressure – Vacuum pressure
Problem 1:
Convert the following to absolute pressure, take atmospheric pressure as
101.33kN/m2 or 10.33 m of water.
• Pressure of 15 m of water
• Vacuum pressure of 4.5 m of water
• Pressure of 740kN/m2
• Vacuum pressure of 58 kN/m2
 Problem 2:

What are the gauge pressure and absolute pressure at a point 3m below the free surface of a liquid
having a density of 1.53 x 103 kg/m3, if the atmospheric pressure is equivalent to 750 mm of Mercury?
The specific gravity of Mercury is 13.6 and density of water = 1000 kg/m3
Measurement of Pressure
Various devices adopted for measuring fluid pressure classified under
two heads
• Manometers
• Mechanical gages
Manometers: Manometers are the devices used for measuring the
pressure at a point in a fluid by balancing the column of fluid by the
same or another column of liquid. They are classified as follows.
• Simple manometers
• Differential manometers
• Simple manometers are those which measure pressure at a point in a
fluid contained in a pipe or a vessel. On the other hand differential
manometers measure the difference of pressure between any two
points in a fluid contained in a pipe or vessel.
Simple manometers
• A simple manometer consists of a glass tube having one of its ends
connected to a point where pressure is to be measured and other end
remains open to atmosphere. Common types of simple manometers
are
• Piezometer
• U tube manometer
• Single column manometer
Piezometers:
• It is the simplest form of manometer used for measuring gauge pressures. One
end of this manometer is connected to the point where pressure is to be
measured and other end is open to the atmosphere as shown in figure. The rise
of liquid gives the pressure head at that point. If at point A, the height of liquid
say water is h in piezometer tube, then
• Pressure at A = h meters of liquid or p= w h N/m2
 U tube manometer:

• It consists of glass tube bent in U shape, one end of which is connected

to a point at which pressure is to be measured and other end remains
open to the atmosphere as shown in figure.
• The tube generally contains mercury or any other liquid whose specific
gravity is greater than the specific gravity of the liquid whose pressure is
to be measured.
For gauge pressure:
Let B is the point at which pressure is to be measured, whose value is p. The datum line is A-A.
The pressure is the same for the horizontal surface. Hence pressure above the horizontal datum
line AA in the left column and in the right column of U tube manometer should be same.

• Pressure above AA in the left column = P+ w1 h1

• Pressure above AA in the right column = w2 h2
• w1 = Specific weight of light liquid
• ρ1 = Density of light liquid
• w2= Specific weight of heavy liquid/ manometric liquid
• ρ2 = Density of heavy liquid

Hence equating the two pressures

P+ w1 h1 = w2 h2
P = w2 h2 - w1 h1
P = ρ2 g h2 - ρ1g h1
For Vacuum pressure:
For measuring vacuum pressure, the level of heavy liquid in the
manometer will be as shown in figure.
• Pressure above AA in the left column = ρ1g h1 + ρ2 g h2 +p
• Pressure above datum in the right column = 0

Hence equating the two pressures

• ρ1g h1 + ρ2 g h2 +p = 0
• p= - ( ρ1g h1 + ρ2 g h2)
 Problem 1:

• The right limb of a simple U tube manometer containing mercury is open to the
atmosphere while the left limb is connected to a pipe line in which fluid of specific
gravity 0.9 is flowing. The center of the pipe is 12 cm below the level of mercury in
the right limb. Find the pressure of fluid in the pipe if the difference of mercury level
in the two limbs is 20 cm.
 Problem 2:
• A simple U tube manometer containing mercury is connected to a pipe in which a
fluid of specific gravity 0.8 and having vacuum pressure is flowing. The other end of
the manometer is open to the atmosphere. Find the vacuum pressure in pipe, if the
difference of mercury level in the limbs is 40 cm and the height of fluid in the left
from the centre of pipe is 15 cm below.
 Differential Manometer
• Differential Manometers are the devices used for measuring the difference of
pressure between two points in a pipe or in two different pipes.
• A differential manometer consists of a U-tube, containing a heavy liquid, whose two
ends are connected to the points, whose difference of pressure is to be measured.
Most commonly used types of differential manometers are
• U tube Differential manometer
• Inverted U tube differential manometer
U tube Differential Manometer
Case A: Two pipes at different level
Let the two points A and B are at different level and also contains liquids
of different specific gravity. These points are connected to the U tube
differential manometer. Let the pressure at A and B are pA and pB
• Taking the datum line at X_X
• Pressure above X-X in the left limb = w1(h+x) + pA
• Pressure above X-X in the right limb =w2h+ w3 y + pB
Equating the two pressures
w1(h+x) + pA = w2h+ w3 y + pB
Difference of pressure at A and B
pA - pB =w2h+ w3 y- w1(h+x)
pA - pB =ρ2gh + ρ3 g y –ρ1 g (h+x)
pA - pB =g h(ρ2- ρ1) + ρ3 g y - ρ1 g x
Case B: A and B are at the same level and contains the same liquid of
density ρ1.
Then pressure above xx in right limb = ρ2gh + ρ1 g x + pB
Pressure above xx in left limb = ρ1 g (h+x) + pA
Equating the two pressures
ρ2gh + ρ1 g x + pB = ρ1 g (h+x) + pA
pA - pB = ρ1 g (h+x)- ρ2gh - ρ1 g x
pA - pB =gh (ρ1 - ρ2)
 Proble m 1:

• A U tube differential manometer connecting two pressure pipes at A and B. The pipe
A containing a liquid of specific gravity 1.6 under a pressure of 110 kN/m2. The pipe
B contains oil of specific gravity 0.8 under a pressure of 200 kN/m2. Find the
difference of pressure measured by mercury as fluid filling U tube. Here Pipe A is
2.6m above Pipe B. Mercury level in the left limb is 1 m below pipe B
Inverted U tube differential manometer
• This type of manometer is used for measuring difference of two pressures where
the accuracy is the major consideration. It consists of an inverted U-tube,
containing light liquid, whose two ends are connected to the points,(A and B)
whose difference of pressures is to be found out.
Let the pressure at A is more than the pressure at B.
• Pressure in the left limb below x-x = pA-ρ1gh1
• Pressure in the right limb below x-x = pB-ρ2gh2-ρ3gh
Equating the two pressures
• pA-ρ1gh1 = pB-ρ2gh2-ρ3gh
• pA- pB = ρ1gh1 -ρ2gh2-ρ3gh

Problem 2:
An inverted U tube manometer is connected to two horizontal pipes A and B through
which water is flowing. The vertical distance between the axis of these pipes is 30 cm.
(Pipe A is above B). When an oil of specific gravity 0.8 is used as a gauge fluid, the
vertical height of water columns in the left and right limbs of the inverted manometer
are found to be same and equal to 35 cm.
Determine the difference of pressure between the pipes.