Fluid Mechanics &

Hydraulic Machinery
Subject Code : PC 301 ME
AICTE V SEMESTER
 Course objective
1. Know various fluid properties, concepts and methods of
fluid measurement.
2. Understand the basic concepts and principles of fluid
flow.
3. Study different equations of fluid motion and fluid
dynamics
4. Analyze different flow characteristics of laminar flow.
5. Understand the working principle of hydraulic turbines &
Pumps
 Course Outcomes
1. Distinguish the properties of fluids and different types of
pressure measurements.
2. Explain different types of flows and analyze them.
3. Analyze the flow between parallel pipes and also calculate
drag and lift coefficients.
4. Demonstrate the working principle of various turbines and
estimate their performance.
5. Demonstrate the working principle of various pumps and
estimate their performance.
 Syllabus
Unit- I Basic concepts and properties of the fluid
Fluid statics
Unit- II Fluid Kinematics
Fluid Dynamics
Unit- III Incompressible fluid flows
Flow through the pipes
Unit-IV Hydraulic turbines
Unit- V Hydraulic Pumps
 Reference Text Books
1. Fluid mechanics & Hydraulic machines by R.K
Bansal, Laxmi Publications.
2. Fluid mechanics & Hydraulic machines by R.K Rajput
3. Hydraulic and Fluid Mechanics by Modi and Seth
 Fluid
A fluid is defined as:
“A fluid is a substance which is capable of flowing”.
A fluid has the following characteristics:
1. It has no shape of its own but conforms to the
shape of the containing vessel.
2. Even a small amount of shear force exerted on
liquid/fluid will cause it to undergo deformation.
 Definition of fluid mechanics

• Fluid mechanics:
“Branch of Engg. science that studies fluids and forces on
them.”
• Fluid Mechanics can be further subdivided into fluid statics, the
study of fluids at rest, and kinematics, the study of fluids in motion
and fluid dynamics, the study of effect of forces on fluid motion. 
• In the modern discipline called Computational Fluid Dynamics
(CFD), computational approach is used to develop solutions to fluid
mechanics problems
SI Units
 Density
 Density is defined as the ratio of mass per unit volume. Its
SI units is kg/m3.
 Density of fluid increase with increases pressure when we
apply pressure then large number of molecules can be
forced in a given volume.
 When temperature of fluid increases then density will
decreases.
 Density is also known as mass density (or) specific mass
 Density
• Density of water is 1000 kg/m3
• Density of mercury is 13.6×1000 kg/m3
• Density of air is 1.2 kg/m3
Density is denoted with 
Mathematically
m

V
 Specific Weight
 It is defined as the weight of fluid per unit volume. It is the
force exerted on the given volume of fluid due to gravity.
Its SI units is force per unit volume i.e. N/m3.
Mathematically,
w=  (Weight of the fluid)/(Volume of the fluid)= g
 Specific weight of water is 9.81 kN/m3 .
 Specific volume
 It is defined as volume per unit mass of fluid.
Mathematically,
Specific Volume=  (Volume of the fluid)/(Mass of the
fluid)
• The SI unit of specific volume is m3/Kg.
 Specific Gravity
 It is the ratio of specific weight of the liquid to the
specific weight of standard fluid.
 For liquids standard fluid is water at 4o C
 Problem
Calculate the specific weight , Specific mass,
Specific volume and specific gravity of a liquid
having a volume of 6 m3 and weight of 44 kN.
 Viscosity
• Viscosity is a measure of the resistance
of a fluid to deform under shear stress.
• It is commonly perceived as thickness, or
resistance to flow.
• Viscosity describes a fluid's internal
resistance to flow and may be thought of
as a measure of fluid friction. Thus, water
is "thin", having a lower viscosity, while
 Types of viscosity
1. Dynamic Viscosity
2. Kinematic Viscosity
 Units of viscosity
• Dynamic Viscosity
S.I units : N-s/m2
M.K.S units : kgf-sec/m2
C.G.S units :poise
• Kinematic Viscosity
S.I units : m2 / sec
M.K.S units : m2 / sec
C.G.S units : stoke
 Problem on viscosity
• A plate of 0.05 mm distant from a fixed plate moves at
1.2 m/s and requires a force of 2.2 N/m2 to maintain this
speed. Find the viscosity of the fluid between the plates.
 Problem on viscosity
• The space between two square flat parallel plate is filled with oil. Each side of the plate is 720 mm.
The thickness of the oil film is 15mm. The upper plate which moves at 3 m/s requires a force of 120
N to maintain the speed. Determine :
1. The dynamic viscosity of the oil.
2. The kinematic viscosity of the oil if the specific gravity of the oil is 0.95
 Problem on viscosity
• Find the kinematic viscosity of oil having density 981
kg/m3 . The shear stress at a point in oil is 0.2452 N/m2
and velocity gradient at that point is 0.2 per second.
 Problem on viscosity
• Determine the specific gravity of a fluid having viscosity
0.05 poise and kinematic viscosity 0.035 stokes.
 Problem on viscosity
• Determine the viscosity of a liquid having a kinematic
viscosity 6 stokes and specific gravity 1.9
 Problem on viscosity
• A plate having an area of 0.6 m2 is sliding down the inclined plate at 300 to the horizontal
with a velocity of 0.36m/s. There is a cushion of fluid 1.8 mm thick between the plane and
the plate. Find the viscosity of the fluid if the weight of the plate is 280 N.
 Problem on viscosity
• Two large fixed parallel planes are 12 mm apart. The space between the surfaces is
filled with oil of viscosity 0.972 N-s/m2. A flat thin plate 0.25 m2 area moves
through the oil at a velocity of 0.3 m/s. Calculate the drag force :
(i) when the plate is equidistant from both the sides
(ii) When the thin plate is at a distance of 4 mm from one of the plane surfaces.
Problems on bulk modulus
• When the pressure of liquid is increased from 3.5 MN/m2
to 6.5 MN/m2 its volume is found to decrease by 0.08
percent. What is the bulk modulus of elasticity of the
liquid.
Problems on bulk modulus
• When a pressure of 20.7 MN/m2 is applied to 100 liters
of a liquid its volume decreases by 1 litre. Find the bulk
modulus of the liquid and identify the liquid.
 Temperature
It is the property that determines the degree of hotness or
coldness or the level of heat intensity of a fluid.
Temperature is measured by using temperature scales.
There are 3 commonly used temperature scales. They are
• Celsius (or centigrade) scale
• Fahrenheit scale
• Kelvin scale (or absolute temperature scale)
 Problem
The pressure and temperature of carbon-dioxide in a
vessel are 600 kN/m2 and 300C resp. Find its mass
density, specific weight and specific volume.
 Pressure
• Pressure of a fluid is the force per unit area of the fluid.
In other words, it is the ratio of force on a fluid to the
area of the fluid held perpendicular to the direction of
the force.
• Pressure is denoted by the letter ‘P’. Its unit is N/m2.
 Pressure head
• Pressure at any point of the liquid is equal to the
product of specific weight of water and height of the
point from the free surface of the liquid.
 Problem on pressure head
1. Find the pressure at a depth of 15 m below the free
surface of water in the reservoir.
 Problem on pressure head
2. Find the height of the water column corresponding to a
pressure of 54 kN/m2.
 Pascals law
The pascals law states as follows :
“ The intensity of pressure at any point in a liquid at rest
is same in all the directions”.
Proof for pascal law
 Problem on Pascal law
• The diameters of ram and plunger of an hydraulic press are 200 mm and 30 mm
respectively. Find the weight lifted by the hydraulic press when the force applied at the
plunger is 400 N.
Absolute and Gauge pressures

• Absolute pressure =
Atmospheric Pressure +
Gauge pressure
• Standard atmospheric
pressure is 101.3 kN/m2
(or)
101.3 kPa ; 10.3 m
of water; 760 mm of
mercury; 1 bar= 105
N/m2
 Problem on Gauge pressure
• Given that Barometric reading = 740 mm of mercury; specific gravity of mercury =
13.6; Intensity of pressure = 40 kPa. Express the intensity of pressure in S.I units, both
gauge and absolute.
 Pressure Measurement
The pressure of fluid may be measured by the following devices:
1. Manometers : Manometers are defined as the devices used for
measuring the pressure at a point in a fluid by balancing the column of
fluid by the same (or) another column of the liquid. These are classified
as follows :
(a) simple manometers
(i) Piezometer (ii) U- tube manometer (iii) Single column manometer
(b) Differential manometers
 Pressure Measurement
2. Mechanical gauges : These are the devices in which the pressure is
measured by balancing the fluid coloumn by spring( elastic element)
(or) dead weight. Generally these gauges are used for measuring
high pressure and where high precision is not required. Some
commonly used mechanical gauges are :
(i) Bourdon tube pressure gauge (ii) Diaphragm pressure gauge
(iii)Bellow pressure gauge and (iv)Dead weight pressure gauge
 Simple Manometers
A simple manometer is one which consists of a glass tube whose end is
connected to a point where pressure is to be measured and the other end
remains open to atmosphere.
1. Piezometer : It is a simplest form of manometer
which can be used for measuring moderate
pressures of liquids. It consists of a glass tube
inserted in the wall of a vessel containing liquid
whose pressure is to be measured. The pressure at
any point in the liquid is indicated by the height of
the liquid in the tube above that point.
 U-tube manometer
A U-tube manometer consists of a glass tube
bent in U Shape, one end of which is
connected to a point at which pressure is to be
measured and other remains open to the
atmosphere.
 Problem on U-tube manometer

• A U-tube manometer is used to measure the pressure of oil of specific0.85 flowing in

a pipeline. Its left end is connected to the gravity pipe and the right limb is open to
the atmosphere. The center of the pipe is 100 mm below the level of mercury in the
right limb. If the difference of mercury level in the two limbs is 160 mm, determine
the absolute pressure of the oil in the pipe.
 Single column manometer
A single column manometer is modified form of U-tube manometer in
which a shallow reservoir having a large cross sectional area(about 100
times) as compared to the area of the tube is connected to one limb of
the manometer.
For any change in pressure the change in the liquid level in the reservoir
will be so small that it may be neglected and the pressure is indicated by
the height of the liquid in other limb.
There are two types of single column manometers:
1. Vertical single column manometer
2. Inclined single column manometer
 Vertical single column manometer

• X-X be the datum line in the reservoir

when the single column manometer is not
connected to the pipe.
 Inclined single column manometer

This type of manometer is useful

for the measurement of small
pressures and is more sensitive
than the vertical tube type.
 Differential Manometers
A differential manometer is used to measure the difference in pressures
between two points in a pipe (or) in two different pipes. In its simplest
form a differential manometer consists of a U-tube containing a heavy
liquid whose two ends are connected to the points whose difference of
pressures is required to be found out.
Following are the most commonly used types of differential manometers:
1. U-tube differential manometer
2. Inverted U-tube differential manometer
 U-tube differential manometer
• Case-I Two pipes at same level
• ρ1 = density of liquid flowing in the pipeline
• ρ2 = density of manometer liquid (assume mercury)
• S = Specific gravity of liquid for which pressure has to be determined
• S1 = Specific gravity of manometer liquid
• hA be the pressure in terms of height of fluid in the pipe at point A
• hB be the pressure in terms of height of fluid in the pipe at point B
• h is the distance of mercury level in the right limb from the datum line XX
• h1 is the height of manometer liquid level in the right limb from the centre of
pipe at point B.
 U-tube differential manometer
• Case-II Two pipes at different level
• S1 = Specific gravity of liquid in pipe A
• S2 = Specific gravity of liquid in pipe B
• S = Specific gravity of manometer liquid
• hA be the pressure head in terms of height of fluid in the pipe at point A
• hB be the pressure head in terms of height of fluid in the pipe at point B
• h is the distance of mercury level in the right limb from the datum line XX
• h1 is the height of manometer liquid level in the left limb from the from the datum
line XX
• h2 is the height of manometer liquid level in the right limb from the from the centre
of pipe at point B.
 Inverted U-tube differential manometer

• S1 = Specific gravity of liquid in pipe A

• S2 = Specific gravity of liquid in pipe B
• S = Specific gravity of manometer liquid
• hA be the pressure head in terms of height of fluid in the pipe at point A
• hB be the pressure head in terms of height of fluid in the pipe at point B
• h is the distance of manometer liquid level in the right limb from the datum line XX
• h1 is the height of manometer liquid level in the left limb from the from the datum line
XX
• h2 is the height of manometer liquid level in the right limb from the from the centre of
pipe at point B

This type of manometer is

used where accuracy is major
consideration
 Advantages of manometers

• Easy to fabricate and relatively inexpensive

• Good accuracy
• High sensitivity
• Require little maintenance
• Not affected by vibration
• Specially suitable for low pressure and low differential
pressures.
 Limitations of Manometers
• Usually bulky and large in size
• Being fragile, get broken easily
• Readings of the manometer are affected by changes in
temperature, altitude and gravity
 Mechanical Gauges
• Manometers are suitable for lower pressure i.e. near to atmosphere
pressures.
• For measuring medium and high pressure elastic pressure gauge such as
tubes, diaphragms, bellows etc. are used.
• Elastic deformation in these elements shows the effect of pressure.
• Since, there elements deform within elastic limit therefore these gauges
are also called elastic gauges.
• Mechanical gauges are called secondary instruments because they have
to be calibrated with help of primary instrument such as manometer.
 Bourdon Tube Pressure Gauges

• It is used to measure high as well as low

pressure.
• Pressure element consists of a metal tube of
elliptical cross section.
• This tube is bend in a form of segment of circle
and responds by bending inward due to increase
in pressure
•  When one end of tube is connected to source of
pressure, the pressure inside the Bourdon tube
causes the tube to expand and bend inward.
•  A simple pinion and sector arrangement is
provided to convert the linear movement of the
tube into angular movement of the pointer.
• The pressure is indicated by the pointer over dial
which can be graduated on a suitable scale.
 Diaphragm Gauge
•  Consists of metallic disc or diaphragm for
actuating the pointer.
•  When pressure is applied on lower side of
diaphragm, it gets deflected upward.
• The movement of diaphragm is transmitted to a
strain gauge or transducer which converts the
pressure signal into electrical signal. In
analogue devices, a rack and pinion system is
provided which moves the pointer.
 Vacuum Gauge
• Bourdon gauge can be used to measure vacuum by
bending the tube inward instead of outward pressure in
pressure gauge.
• Vacuum gauge is graduated in mm of Hg below
atmospheric pressure.
• Vaccum gauges are used to measure vacuum in
condensers etc.,If there is leakage the vacuum will drop.
 Problems on differential manometer

• A differential manometer connected at the two points A&B

in a pipe containing an oil of specific gravity 0.9 shows a
difference of mercury levels asv150 mm. Find the
difference in pressures at two different points.
 Solution
• S1 = 0.9
S= 13.6
h=150 mm
hA - hB = h(S- S1 ) = 1.905 m of water
PA – PB = Wh=18.68 kN/m2 .
 Problem
• Figure shows a
differential manometer
connected at two points
A & B. At A air pressure
is 100kN/m2 . Find the
absolute pressure at B.
 Solution
• PA = 100 kN/m2
hA = 100/9.81=
hB = PB / w
Considering pressure heads above the datum line X-X
Pressure head in left limb = (650/1000) + hA
Pressure head in right limb = hB + (250/1000)*0.85 +
(150/1000)*13.6

Equating pressure heads

 Problem
• An inverted differential
manometer is connected to
two pipes A & B carrying
water under a pressure as
shown in Fig. The fluid in
the manometer is oil of
specific gravity 0.75.
Determine the pressure
difference between A & B.
 Solution
• Specific gravity of oil S= 0.75
Specific gravity of water S1 = S2 =1
Difference of oil in two limbs = (450+200)-450=200 mm
pressure heads on right and lift limb below X-X are
equal.
Pressure head in left limb = hA - (0.45*1)
Pressure head in right limb = hB - (0.45*1)-(0.2*0.75)