ADVANCE

COMPOSITE

BY: HITEN KADU

Objective CAR 66 Level
Reference B1 B2

6.3 Aircraft Materials - Composite and 6.3 2 2

Non- Metallic (a) Characteristics,
properties and identification of common
composite and non-metallic materials,
other than wood, used in aircraft;

Sealant and bonding agents

WHAT IS A COMPOSITE
STRUCTURE?
When two or more material are combined
to form much stronger structure then
either material it self then it is known as
composite.

The simplest composite is composed of

two elements:
a matrix that serves as a bonding
substance,
and a reinforcing material.
Advantages

-Higher strength to weight ratio.

-Formation of complex aerodynamically
contoured shapes.
- The number of parts and fasteners may
be reduced
-Cost effective.
-Don’t corrode like metal.
-Reduce wear.
Use – Military & civilian a/c applications.

Fig. Relative compression of use of composite in

Boeing - 747 & Boeing -777
Fig. 3.3 Use of composite in Boeing -787
 Reinforcing fiber
-Reinforcing fiber gives primary strength to the
structure, in combination with matrix.

-Common type of reinforcing fibers are :

a) Fiber glass (Glass cloth)

b) Aramid
c) Carbon/Graphite
d) Boron
e) Ceramic
Fiber glass (Glass cloth)
- Fiber glass is made from small strands of
molten silica glass , which are then spun
together & woven into cloths.
Common types of different fibers are :

E glass (Electric glass) – It is a borosilicate glass

used for reinforcement. It is also called “electric
glass” , because of its high electrical resistance .

S- glass – It is magnesia-alumina-silicate glass, used

where a high tensile strength is needed.
It is 40 % stronger than E-glass and retains its
strength characteristics at higher temperatures
Advantage : Widespread availability &
its low cost.

Disadvantage :Weighs more & has

less strength.
Aramid

-Aromatic polyamide fibers are known as aramid.

-It is yellow in colour, light weight, excellent
tensile strength & remarkable flexibility.
-Kevlar is best known (Kevlar is a registered
trademark of the EI Dupont Company) & most
widely used aramid.
-It has tensile strength 4 times that of alloyed
aluminum (4 × 65000 psi).
-Kevlar will ordinarily stretch a great deal before
it breaks.
Use : Kevlar 49 - For structural grades.
Kevlar 29 - For boats
Kevlar 129 – For bullet proof
material.

 Multiple layer of Kevlar fabric has

resistance to bullet impact (Preventing
penetration)
-Aramid is an ideal material to be used on aircraft
parts, subjected to high stress & vibration.
-Ex : Main rotor blade & hub assembly of helicopter.

Disadvantage :

-Causes problem during cutting or drilling.

-Drilling aramid. For example can be a problem when
the drill bit grabs a fiber and stretches it to the
breaking point instead of cutting it. This material will
look fuzzy , if the fuzzing material around fastener
holes or seams is not sealed.

-Moisture will prevent aramid from bonding properly.

-Much less compressive strength in comparison to

carbon/graphite.
Carbon / Graphite

-It is very strong , stiff & of rigid strength.

-It is stronger in compressive strength, but more
brittle then Kevlar.
-Carbon fibers are electrically conductive have low
thermal expansion coefficients and have high
fatigue resistance
Disadvantage :

It is corrosive, when bonded to aluminum.

(Usually a layer of fiberglass is used as a barrier and
aluminum is anodized, primed and painted prior to
assembly)

The impact resistance of carbon fibers is less

Carbon/graphite is stronger in compressive strength

than Kevlar, but it is more brittle.
Use :
Carbon/graphite fiber composite are used to fabricate
primary structural component such as rib or skin
surfaces.
Boron

-It is made by depositing boron onto a thin filament of

tungsten & resulting fiber is 0.004inch in diameter.
-It has excellent compressive strength , stiffness &
Extremely hard.

Disadvantage :

- It can be hazardous to work with & used for military

application rather civil.
At one time, boron fibers were used to see if they could
help extend the life of the ageing aircraft fleet. When
aluminum wing skins developed tiny stress cracks, boron
patches were bonded to the aluminum to prevent further
cracking.
In designing a composite component that needs both
strength and stiffness associated with boron, many civil
aviation manufacturers are utilizing hybrid composite
materials of aramid and carbon/ graphite, instead of
boron.
Ceramic

-Ceramic fiber are used at high

temperature applications, because this
retain most of strength & flexibility up to
2200 degree F.
-Ceramic fibers are often also used with a
metal matrix.

Eg – tiles on space shuttle , firewalls etc.

(ceramic composite that is heat resistant
and dissipates heat quickly.)
Firewalls are often made of ceramic fiber
composites to dissipate the heat.
Fiber usage
-Increasing day by day most commonly used fiber are
fiber glass,aramid & carbon/graphite.

Fiber placement

-Strength of reinforcing fiber in a matrix depends upon

the weave of material & how the matrix is applied ,
Filament tensile strength & design of part.

-Only filaments are not used ,

-use of resin material will decrease the tensile strength
because resin tends to make the structure more brittle,
causing them to break at a lower tensile strength.
Fiber science

-The selective placement of fiber to give

the greatest strength in various
applications is known as fiber science.

-The strength and stiffness of a composite

depend on the orientation of the plies to
the load direction.

- A sheet metal component will have the

same strength no matter which direction it
is loaded.
-
 -By use of composite , more strength can be
given along the desired direction.
Fiber orientation
Some of the terms used to describe fiber orientation are:

WARP
The threads that run the length of the fabric as it comes off the
bolt are referred to as the warp. The warp direction is
designated at 00.
In woven application there are more threads woven into wrap then
the fill direction
A material is stronger in the warp direction than in The fill
direction.

Since the warp direction is often critical in fabricating or

repairing composites, it may be identified by inserting another
type of thread at periodic intervals.

The plastic backing on the underside of materials that have been

pre- impregnated with resins may also be marked to identify the
warp threads.
WEFT (FILL)

Weft threads are those that run perpendicular to

the warp fibers they are designated as 900.

The weft, or fill threads are the threads that

interweave with warp threads.
SELVAGE EDGE

A tightly woven edge produced by the weaver to

prevent the edge from raveling is referred to as
the selvage edge.

It is parallel to the warp threads.

The selvage edge is removed for all fabrication

and repair work because the weave is different
than the body of the fabric and would not give
the same strength as the rest of the fabric.
BIAS

The bias is at a 450 angle to the warp threads.

Fabric can be formed into contoured shapes by
using the bias.

Fabrics can often be stretched along the bias but

seldom stretched along the warp or weft.

This is important to keep in mind when it is

necessary to wrap a fabric around a contoured
shape.
 Fabric style

Unidirectional Bidirectional Mats

Unidirectional :
- In unidirectional fiber orientation ,major fiber runs in
one direction , giving strength in that direction.
- No weft or fill is present generally.
- Tapes are unidirectional & usually of carbon or
graphite material.
Bidirectional or Multidirectional

-In bidirectional fiber orientation , fibers runs in two or more

directions.
- Wrap threaded usually have more fibers then weft so usually
more strength in wrap direction then fill direction.
Mats
-Chopped fibers that are compressed together are
often called mats.
-A mat is not usually strong as unidirectional or bi
directional fabric & not commonly used in repair
work.
Woven fabric weaves

Fabric are woven in number of weaves and weights.

Fabrics are more resistant to fiber breakout , delamination

and more damage tolerant than unidirectional material.

Most common weaves in advanced composite aircraft

construction are the plain and satin weaves.
Plain weave is a simple pattern in which warp and fill yarns
alternate over and under each other.

Satin weave are made by floating wrap yarns over several fill
yarns and under one fill yarn in a repetitious pattern.

It is called satin weave because it produce a satiny finish by

exposing more warp threads on the front side of fabric.

Satin weaves contour better around a complex curve than a

plain weave.

They are common for repair applications.

 Hybrids
-Using different types of fiber combination for strength or
reducing cost is known as hybrids.
Eg.1) Kevlar combined with carbon/graphite to produce a
structure that combines the flexibility of kevlar with
stiffness of carbon graphite.
2) Combination of Kevlar and fiberglass to produce a less
expensive high strength material.

Three kind of hybrid structure commonly used in aviation

today are :

Intraply , Interply & Selective placement

Intraply : Utilize reinforcing material that is woven from

two or more different fibers.
Interply : Uses two or more layers of reinforcing
materials which are laminated together.
-Each layer must be of different material.
-May be in the form of unidirectional or bidirectional
fabric.

Selective placement : Fibers can be selectively

placed to give greater strength, flexibility & reduce
cost.
Intraply
Hybrid Interply Hybrid
* MATRIX MATERIAL

*Matrix is the bonding material that completely

surrounds the fibers to give strength & transfer
stresses to fiber.
*Strength of composite depends upon the ability
of matrix to transfer stress to reinforcing fiber.
Ex :Polyester resin, epoxy resin etc.

 Resin matrix are two part system consisting

of resin & catalyst(hardner).
Matrix system

Resin matrix are a type of plastics .

Some companies refer to composites as fiber

reinforced plastics (FRP).

There are 2 general categories of plastics :

Thermoplastic and thermoset.

Eg: Plexiglas®, used on a/c windshields is

thermoplastic
Thermoplastic

Thermoplastic resins use heat to form the part

into the desired shape ; one that is not
necessarily permanent.

Thermoplastic resins may be found in overhead

storage bins and non-structural applications.

With the development of high temperature

thermoplastic resins, may be used in places of
temperature not exceeding 750°F.
Thermosets

Thermosets use heat to form and set the shape

of the part permanently.

Most structural airframe applications are

presently constructed of thermoset resins.
Epoxy Resins

Epoxies are a type of thermosetting plastic resin well

known for their outstanding adhesion, strength and
their resistance to moisture and chemicals.

They are very useful for bonding nonporous and

dissimilar materials such as a metal part to a
composite component .
Epoxy Resins are most common matrix system
used in aircraft composite fabrication and
repair because:

1. They are extremely flexible in terms of

their application. More specifically,
epoxy resins can be formulated to
provide rigid or flexible strength, to
perform at high or low temperatures or
to provide a combination of these
characteristics.
2. They exhibit good adhesive characteristics when used
with a broad range of reinforcing materials, fillers,
and substrates.

3. After being cured, epoxy resins are resistant to

deterioration by water, acids, and bases, many
chemical solvents, and UV light.

4. Epoxy resins are easily cured at room temperature or

at slightly elevated temperatures, and they do not
require exotic equipment to process.
5. Epoxy resins are very dimensionally stable,
they shrink very little during the curing
process and are very acceptable for use as
structural parts mold fabrication material,
or tooling fabrication material.

Epoxy resins are used in many instances to

mold parts in mass production to very close
tolerances.
6. The resins exhibit the strongest adhesive
characteristics of any known polymeric material.
For this reason alone, epoxy resins are ideal for
the fabrication of lightweight structural materials
for aircraft and space vehicles.

7. Although epoxy resins are initially more

expensive than some other matrix material, in
the long run their superior strength ,long shelf
life, and ease of use make them more economical
to use for fabrication and repair than other
matrix materials.
Epoxy Resins chemistry :

The final characteristics of the Epoxy Resin are

determined not only by the characteristics of the
curing agent, but also by the molecular structure
attached to the basic epoxy group.

Diluents: Diluents are attendant molecular structures

attached to the basic epoxy group intended to change
viscosity of the uncured resin system .
Flexibilizers : flexibilizers, are added to aromatic
epoxy resins to reduce the brittleness of the cured
resin.

the use of flexibilizers increase the flexibility of

the cured epoxy resin at the expense of the
tensile strength.

most flexibilizers increase the viscosity of the

uncured resin.
Polybutadine resins

Polybutadine resins were introduced into the market

under the trade name Buton.
Polybutadine resins are thermosetting resins that offer
very good electrical properties ,outstanding chemical
resistance , very low water absorption , and are stable
at relatively high temperature.

Polybutadine resins commonly found in coatings,

adhesives and potting compounds.
Common application of Polybutadine resins is in the
preparation of pre-preg materials for use in radomes.
WORKING WITH RESINS &CATALYSTS

Always follow the procedures specified in the structural

repair manual, it is important to mix the resin system
properly.

Each part of the resin system is weighed before mixing –

weigh resins out, don’t mix by volume.

Always mix resin and hardener before adding any filler.

If the resin system requires refrigerated storage, allow

each part to warm up to room temperature before
weighing and mixing. A cold resin weight heavier than the
same amount of a room temperature resin.
Mix resins in the proper ratios.

Mix resin systems together in a wax free container.

Mix resins for the proper amount of time. Resins

that are not mixed properly will not cure to the
maximum strength obtainable.

Do not mix the resins too fast. If they are mixed

quickly, small bubbles may rise into the air and
could get on your skin or in your hair.

Do not mix large amounts together. A large volume

of resin and curing agent will cause an acceleration
of the chemical reaction . The pot life, or amount
of time you have to work with the resins, is also
reduced.
Be sure to know the resin’s pot life before starting. This
is the amount of time that the mixed resins will be
workable. Some resin systems have very short pot life (15
minutes). Other have long pot life (4 hours).

The shelf life is the time the product is good in an

unopened container. The shelf life to pre-preg materials
is very important.

If too must resin is used, the part is called resin rich.

This affects the strength of the composite by making the
part brittle. It also adds extra weight, which is opposite
of the reason for using composites in the first place.
A resin starved or resin lean part is one in which
too little resin was used, causing the part to be
weak because the matrix cannot transfer the
stresses to the fibers.

The correct amount of fiber to resin ratio is

important to get the desired strength. In advanced
composite work, a 50:50 ratio is good , however
a 60:40 fiber to resin ratio is better. Remember,
the fibers provide the strength, not the resin.
When working the resin into the fiber care
should be taken not to distort the weave of the
fabric.

Curing of the resins must also be accomplished

correctly to achieve the maximum strength.
PRE-IMPREGNATED MATERIALS

Pre – impregnated fabrics, or pre-pregs, are fabric that has

the resin system already impregnated into the fabric.

Pre-preg fabrics eliminate the need for mixing , so

technicians do not have to worry about whether the
proper mix ratio was used or if the proper amount of resin
was applied .

Pre-preg fabrics are manufactured by dipping the woven

fabric into a resin solution.

This fabric then goes onto a drying tower that removes any
excess resin.

Then a parting film may be added to one or both sides to

prevent the fabric from sticking when rolled.
Pre-pregs can also be made in
unidirectional material instead of the
woven fabric.

In this case, the fibers come directly from

the spool of thread and are placed in the
correct orientation.

They are than heated on one surface while

a paper with resin on it is applied to the
other surface.

The heat melts the resin from the paper

and impregnates the threads.
Pre-preg materials offer a convenience over raw fabrics
in many ways:

1. The pre-preg contains the proper amount of matrix. It

does not produce a resin or resin lean component if
cured properly.
2. The reinforcing fibers are completely encapsulated with
the matrix.
3. The technician does not have to worry about distorting
the fabric weave while working the resin into the fabric.
4. Pre-preg fabrics eliminate the need to manually weight
and mix components.
5. In many cases, pre-preg materials produce a stronger
component or repair. This is because just the right
amount of matrix – to – fabric ratio has been applied and
it has been mixed properly.
Disadvantages:

Many pre- pregs must be stored in a freezer.

If some pre-pregs are allowed to remain at room

temperature for even a few hours, the resins /catalysts start
their chemical reaction and begin to cure. The term “out –of
freezer life” is the time that the material is actually out of
the freezer and is being cut or transported.

Pre-preg material is much more expensive then raw fabric

that can be impregnated with the same type of resin system.

Pre-preg are usually purchased in full roll quantites

Composite components and materials have not been

standardized.
Adhesives

Resins come in different forms. Some resins are made

for laminating so they are generally thinner and can be
worked into the fibers. Others are used for bonding and
are generally known as adhesives because they stick
parts together.

Adhesives come in many forms and can be purchased in

individual cans that are weighed and mixed together.

They may come in the form of a cartridge , or in

convenient plastic bags.
Adhesive film are used many times to help
bond a pre-preg patch to a repair area.

Foaming adhesives are another type of bonding

agent used with prepreg materials.
When heat is applied to these adhesives, they
foam up and expand.

These are often used to splice replacement

honeycomb core segments to existing
honeycomb cores.
Fillers

Fillers, a thixotropic agent, are materials that are added

to resins to control viscosity and weight, to increase pot
life and strength, and to make the application of the
resin easier.

When filler is used as a thixotropic agent, it increases the

volume of the resin making it less dense and less
susceptible to cracking and lowers the weight of the
material.

## Thixotropy : is a time dependent shear thinning

property . Certain gels or fluids are thick /viscous under
static conditions will flow over time when shaken ,agitated
or stressed
Filler material can be in the form of micro balloons,
Chopped fibers, or flox.

Glass micro balloons are more common because the solvent

action of the matrix does not affect them.

Micro balloons are used primarily as a thixtropic agent

Micro balloons don’t add strength the way chopped fibers or

flox do.

Micro balloons are small spheres of plastic or glass

Chopped fibers can be any type of fiber cut to a certain length (1/4-to
½-inch are common).

Flox is the fuzzy fibers taken from the fabric strands.

Metal Matrix Composites

The matrix material does not always have to be in a plastic

or resin form – it can be metal.

The metal might be aluminum, Titanium or steel.

The composite is formed when chopped fibers or fiber

strands are mixed into the molten metal.

The mixture is then formed molded, rolled, or extruded in

the usual way
 CORE MATERIAL

- Core material is the central member of an assembly , when

bonded between two thin face sheets it provides rigidness &
lightness
- Composite structures manufactured in this manner are
sometime referred to as a sandwich construction.
- Core structure come in the form of honeycomb , foam,wood
etc.
Working of honeycomb construction
The core material gives a great deal of compressive
strength to a structure .

This constant foam core, or honeycomb, will eliminate

most flexing of the skin because the core is uniformly
stiff throughout the blade . Core materials may also
come in wood.

Honeycomb has the greatest strength- to - weight ratio,

But foam is usually more forgiving .

If a foam core is damaged , its inherent resiliency

causes it to have what is commonly referred to as a
memory , which returns it to about 80% of its original
strength .

Most honeycomb cores have little resiliency.

- Core material gives huge amount of compressive
strength.
 * Honeycomb
-Very high strength to
weight ratio.
-Cores can be constructed
of Al, Kevlar, carbon,
fiberglass, nomex etc.
-The most common types
of honeycomb used in
aviation manufacturing
are aluminum and
Nomex.
Honey comb
This type of core structure has the shape of natural
honeycomb.

Characteristics of honeycomb cores, when used in sandwich

core construction, have high strength –to- weight ratio, a
high compression strength, a uniform distribution of stress ,
rigidity, thermal and acoustical insulation and are fire
resistant.

Honeycomb cores may be constructed of aluminum,

Kevlar, carbon, fiberglass, paper, Nomex or steel.

The most common types of honeycomb used in aviation

manufacturing are aluminum and Nomex.
Nomex, manufactured by DuPont, is
widely used as an advanced composite
core material.

Nomex – Paper impregnated material.

- Honeycomb cores laminated with a

variety of composite or metal skin.
Honeycomb cores are made by crimping the core material
into place.
The pattern has what is known as a ribbon direction .
The ribbon direction can be found by attempting to tear
along one side of the honeycomb.
If you are tearing in the ribbon direction of the tear is
parallel to the direction of the ribbon.
The honeycomb will not tear except in the ribbon direction.
When doing a repair it is important to line up the ribbon
direction of the replacement honeycomb core with the
ribbon direction of the original part.
Honeycomb can be joined together with a
foam adhesive, usually in the form of a
tape. The foam adhesive is laid between
the parts to be joined and heated to cure.
Foams

There are many different types

of foams available depending
on the specific application.
There are different densities
and types of foams for high
heat applications fire
resistance, repair foams,
structural foams, etc.

the advantages of a sandwich

structure can be shown by
comparing four layers of solid
fiberglass laminate to a foam
core sandwich structure that is
four times as thick.
 * Styrofoam:

- Used with epoxy resin

only & can’t with
polyester resin.
- It is used on home built
a/c.
- Hot wire cutter can be
used to cut the desired
shape.
Urethane
-Thisfoam can be used with either epoxy resin or
polyester resin.
-Hot wire cutter can’t be usedbecause a hazardous
gas is created when urethane is subject to high
temperatures.
- can be cut with a number of common tools

Poly vinyl chloride (PVC)

-Can be used with polyester or epoxy resin.
-Can be cut with hot wire cutter
- Strux (Cellular, cellulose acetate)
- Used to build up ribs or other structure purpose.
 Wood cores
- Balsa wood or lamination of hard wood bonded
to laminates of high strength materials are used
for composite materials.
 Manufacturing

There are three primary factors which are considered in an

analysis of manufacturing costs:

1. Materials costs
2. Fabrication time
3. Assembly time.
Advanced composite materials cost five to ten times more
than aluminum. Fabrication time, i.e. the time required
to form the final shape, is about the same for aluminum
or composites.
The big difference between composites and aluminum lies
in the assembly time.

Composite structures can be made in very complicated

shapes. Consequently, stiffeners, ribs, lugs, beam, etc.
Can be molded together as part of the fabrication time, it
almost eliminates the assembly time.

Composite are becoming increasingly cost effective as the

material and manufacturing technologies mature.
COMPRESSION MOLDING

Compression molding is a manufacturing process that

uses a male and female mold.
The reinforcement fabric is wetted with a matrix / a
pre-peg material is laid into a female mold and a male
mold is used to form the shape of the part.
the two sides of the molds are used to apply pressure
and give the part its final shape.
The component cures by heating the molds to a
specific temperature for a specified amount of time.
Two commonly used heating methods with compression
molding are accomplished by circulating heated oil
through the mold or the use of electric filaments which
are imbedded into the mold.

Once a mold has been produced, it can be reused to

economically turn out a very large number of precision
formed parts.
 Vacuum bagging

- This technique offers higher performance

characteristic to the composite.
- The method utilize a flexible film or a rubber bag
which permits evacuation of the air within thus
applying uniform atmospheric pressure for better
curing.
- It can apply pressure up to 28 inches Hg at sea level.
- It also provides means of removing volatile product
during curing.
Essential steps in this process are :
- Lay up of the fiber fabric with the matrix material.
- Covering the lay up material / zone with an impervious
layer of plastic.
- Evacuation with a vacuum pump such that about one atm
pressure (29.92 in of mercury/ 14.6 psi) is uniformly
applied over the entire surface.
- Providing heat by internal or external device for better
curing.
- Removal of covering plastic.
Vacuum bagging as in repair technique :
 Some basic equipment & material involved in the
process are :
Vacuum bag / film – They are covers of plastic
without any void or pin hole to prevent leakage of air.
- These films are made of hydrophilic material or
water sensitive materials.
Sealant tape – These are used to maintain a positive
seal between the surface of the original part & the
bagging film.
- It should be able to withstand the temperature of
cure.
Release fabric or film – They are used between the
wet patches & other vacuum bagging material.
-They are also used when the resin are expected to
flow up through the material & in to bleeder.
-They are usually perforated.
-Non perforated release film use under a heat
blanket over the bleeder material thus
preventing the bleeder material & resin coming
in contact with the heat blanket.
-They are often referred as ‘peel plies’ , peel
plies are nylon or polyester release fabric used to
transfer excess resin to the bleeder material
without sticking to the part.
-They are peeled off after curing thus ensuring
smooth finish of the composite surface.
Bleeder – They are used to soak excess material.
- They must be separated from the resin with a
peel ply release film/release fabric so that it
 doesn’t stick with the surface of the part. E.g.-
Felt.
* Breather – Breathers are cottony materials that
allow air to flow through a valve or over the
surface of part throughout the vacuum bagged
area.
* In many cases bleeder & breather is a single unit
that is absorbent & porous in nature.

-It usually accommodates the thermocouple for

sensing & maintaining the curing temperature.
Heat blanket – This is optional & used when curing
require higher temperature.
 Insulation blanket – This is use in conjunction with heat
blanket & is used on one of its side which is in contact with
the vacuum bagging film to prevent the temperature of heat
blanket to cause adverse effect on vacuum bagging film.
It is used to minimize the amount of heat loss during the cure
process.
The insulation may be few layer of fiberglass or sewn blanket
with many layers.

calking plate
In some instances a calking plate or pressure plate is used to
add extra pressure that smoothes the contour of the part
being cured.
This is usually an optional piece made of wood ,Al,or Cu.
 * Filament winding
-Reinforcing fiber is wound
as continuous thread
around the desired shaped
material.
-Prepreg thread may be
used.
-Wound in desired pattern
on mandrel.
-Strongest composite is
manufactured by this
method.
Use:
-Fabrication of helicopter rotor blade , propeller
& on entire fuselage .
-Repair limited to some parts only.
 * Wet lay up/ hand lay up
- Less precise then the precision or vacuum bag
molding or filament winding.
-Mixing of fiber reinforcement with the matrix
then laying over the “wet” fabric over a surface.
-Most frequently used for repair work.
* Lightening protection
-Aluminum may be woven into the top layer of
composite fabric, can be done with fiber glass or
Kevlar but not on the carbon / graphite.
-A fine layer of skin under the top layer of composite
material , but used as sandwiched with the carbon /
graphite to prevent galvanic action.
Aluminum may be applied by :
- A thin foil sheet bonded to the outer layer during
manufacturing.
- Aluminized paint.
-A piece of metal is bonded to the composite to allow
the dissipation of electrical charge out.
-Aluminum may be flame sprayed onto the component.
 * Defects of composite
-Composite structure & parts are susceptible to
variety of defect/damage which may result from in
service , manufacturing or environmental loading.
-It can be in the form of scratches , dents , edge
damage , hole damage , surface damage or
delamination.
Some common type of damage in composite are :
Cosmetic damage
- It is the defect on the outer skin & doesn’t
involve damage of the structural reinforcing fiber.
- It is caused by chipping or scratching during
handling.
- Repair made for esthetic reasons only.
Impact Damage
 Impact damage
-Defect due to the impact of foreign object.
-It may have board range from slight to severe.
-Caused by improper handling during
transportation , storage & that can appear as
nicking , chipping , cracking or breaking of the
edge or corner.

Delamination
-It is the separation of layer in a laminate.
-Delamination involves separation of discrete
layers of reinforcing fibers.
-Caused due to impact , moisture in the fabric or
lightening strike.
- Causes of delamination
during manufacturing or
repair are :
•Improper resin or catalyst.
•Improper mixing or
weighing of the two
matrix components.
•Improper amount of heat
or pressure during cure
cycle.
•Improper cleaning of
dirt ,grease or foreign
material.
SEPERATION
 Cracks
-It is alike the cracks as in metal.
-For detection it needs advanced method of NDI.

Hole damage
-It may occur from impact damage or over torquing
fasteners or as a result of fastener pull through.
- Holes drilled in the wrong location, wrong size, or
wrong number of holes drilled can also be classified
as hole damage.
CRACKS
HOLE DAMAGE
 * Inspection methodology
Visual inspection

-Visual inspection is used to detect cracks, surface

irregularities (from an internal flaw), and surface defects such
as delamination and blistering
-Light & magnifying glass can be use as tools.
-It can detect cracks , suspection for delaminations.
-Delamination may appear as bubble or indentation on the
surface.
-Use a coin tap test if you suspect areas of delamination.
* Coin tap test
-It is used to detect internal flaws or suspected
area of delamination.
Process :
-Coin tap lightly along a bond line or area
suspected of delamination.
-A sharp solid sound indicates a good bond.
-A dull thud indicates bond separation.
Precaution:
-Change in thickness of part , reinforcement ,
fasteners & previous repairs may give false
indication.
-Hole ,crack or other damages are generally along
with delamination.
* Ultrasonic test
-For internal damage inspection or to detect
flaws , delamination in a part.
Process :
-It uses high frequency sound waves as a mean of
detection.
-A beam of high frequency wave is transmitted
through the part & viewing the echo pattern on
oscilloscope.
-Variation in echo pattern gives indication for the
defects.
-It can also detect flaws in honeycomb.
There are three types of com manly used ultrasonic testers:
A-SCAN, B-SCAN, AND C-SCAN.
AN A-SCAN is a time versus amplitude display read from left to
right.
A known reference must be scanned first. Then the height of the
specimen pip is compared to the height of the pip on the reference.
A B-SCAN takes a cross-sectional view of the material being tested a
uses an oscilloscope screen to compare the sample.
A C-SCAN imaging shows the shape, size, and location of the
damage, but does not show the depth.
Ultrasonic inspection methods require specialized training to provide
reliable results.
Thermography

-To locate flaws by temperature variation at the

surface of the damaged part.
Process :
-Heat is applied to the part, then the surface
gradient is measured using an infrared camera
or film.
-It uses a test specimen & a reference standard
for comparison.
Fig. 3.49 Thermograph
 Laser holography
-Suspected parts are heated & then photographed using a
laser light source & a special camera.
-It is use to detect disbond or water in honeycomb and
impact damage.

Radiology
-It is use to detect surface crack as well as internal
cracks , which is not visible.
-It can detect water inside honeycomb cells.
-These facilities test the manufactured components to
see if the ply orientation is correct , and that matrix
cracks , delamination subsurface damage , resin
content (resin rich or starved). And porosity can all be
seen.
 Hardness testing
-It is used to determine weather resin have
reached their proper strength.
-Hardness testing doesn’t test the strength of
composite but of matrix material.
-The barcol tester could be use to determine
hardness.

Dye penetrant
-Use of this test with advance composite is still
questioned because it may cause non repairable
damages.
 INSPECTION/ VISUAL X RAYS ULTRA
DEFECTS SONIC
IMPACT  

DELAMINATION/ 
DISBOND
CRACKS   

HOLE DAMAGE  

WATER 

LIGHTENING  

BURNS/ 
OVERHEATING
 * Repair of composite structure
-Parts undergone service condition need repair as
on detection of the damage / defect.
-For classifying the damage & the requirements for
undertaking a repair its strength ,durability ,repair,
stiffness requirements, aerodynamic requirement,
weight & balance, operating environment &
temperature etc must be considered.
Repairs may fall into one of four types :

1. Bolted on the metal or cured composite patches.

2. Bonded on the metal or cured composite patches.
3. Resin injection
4. Laminating on new repair plies.

-Popular method employed in composite repair are :

Cosmetic repair – Touch up with resin or paints or

superficial nonstructural filler.
 Resin injection
- It is a semi structural repair used in limited instances ,
where the delamination restricted to one ply.
- The resin is injected by a syringe in the effected area
cured.
- It retard the spread of delamination & considered
temporary measure.
 Syringe

0.060” Dia hole

Delamination area
Plug repair

- It is semi structural repair which can give some strength &

is used in repair of sandwich construction.
- These are also known as potted repair.
- Flexing of these area might cause the potted plug to
dislodge.
- For this repair :
1. clean the damaged area.
2. Sand out the delaminated area.
3. Fill the core area with a resin/microbaloon mixture
4.prepare patches.
5. Apply pressure and cure.
6. Refinish
External bolt repair
-These are field repair where the complexity of repair
and material removal preclude the case of flush type
of repair or shear stress requirements are high.
-Usually bolted doublers can be used for repair.
( Doubler is a localized area of extra layers of
reinforcement )

External bonded repair

-These are used to repair laminates & skin of medium
or less thickness honey comb member .
-This is also a field repair where strength recovery is
as high as 75 to 100%.
- Bonded repairs are stronger then the bolted repairs.
 Flush stepped or scarf repair

-This is applicable to thicker or heavily loaded

laminated panels or components where damage
has occurred to a large area & aerodynamic
smoothness is required.
-This type of repair insures uniform shear stress
distribution in the adhesive and low peel stress
due to lack of eccentricity in the load path.
Usual repair procedure comprises of four steps :

Preparation – Outlining the damaged area & cleaning the

surface so that it is free from dust & grease.
Material removal – Removal of damaged area by special
tooling.
Grinding , sanding & routing is generally used.
Care is taken that fiber in the surface ply is
undamaged as it is exposed.
Patch preparation - Patch plies or stacks are prepared in
accordance with the strength requirements.
Curing/fastening –Done as per manual provided by
manufacturer.
* Equipments/Tools used for composite repair
Scissors
used for cutting uncured fabrics.
Fiberglass or carbon/graphite fabrics can be cut by
conventional fabric scissors.
Aramid fabric needs scissors with special steel or ceramic
blades and serrated edges.
Steel bladed scissors with a diamond cutting edge may
also be used with aramid.
scissors that are used for cutting aramid should never be
used to cut fiberglass or carbon/graphite and vice versa
Mark scissors handle as Yellow for aramid , black for
carbon/graphite and white for fiberglass for
identification
Drilling and countersinking

Drilling holes in composite materials present

different problems than those encountered in
drilling metals.
Delamination , fracture, breakout and
separation are types of failures,
To combat these problems
the material being drilled should be backed
with wood
while end of drill use very light or no pressure
use very sharp drill mainly to cut laminate.
Solid carbide drill works on all type of
composites and have longer life than
standard steel drill.
Diamond dust charged cutters perform well
on fiberglass and carbon but cause excessive
fuzzing on aramid component so should be
avoided
Drill motor speed – hi speed works for most
types but do not use excessive pressure
The best included angle of conventional drill
used on composite is 135°
 Brad point bit
-These bit have C shape cutting edge to pull the
fiber out Then cut it without stretching .
-These are special drill bit used for drilling
aramid fiber.

No cutting fluid should be used except water.

If water is used the fabric should be
thoroughly dried before bonding
Spade/Dagger bit

For fiberglass or carbon/graphite drilling a dagger/spade

bit can be used.

Use of this bit reduces the tendency of fibers to break

rather than be cut.

Has single cutting edge

Best results for drilling and countersinking are obtained

with a carbide dagger bit
This bit cut more with its outer edges ; the inner portion
mostly removing waste materials
* Equipments/Tools used for composite repair
Sander
-They have sanding disc rotated by motor.
-They remove matrix without damaging the
surrounding fiber.
Router
-It is usually used to remove the damaged core material.
-The router may be supported on template.
-The most common types of router operate at 25000 to
30000 rpm
Various type of router bits are :

Pointed router bit : For outlining the plug in the

damaged core.

Flush router bit :For making second cut or to route out

entire honeycomb area.
Diamond cut router bit :
They are carbide tipped used for
routing nomex honeycomb, carbon/graphite or fiber
glass laminates.
Diamond cut router bit does not refer to diamond chips
or dust on cutting surface but rather to shapes of
the cut in the flutes

Herringbone router bit :

Specially developed for aramid fibers

The flutes of this bit change the direction
Work well on thick laminates of aramid without causing
excessive fuzzing.
 Hole saws
-They are used to cut holes.
-However they may damage honey comb.
Laser cutter
-It uses highly focused light beam ‘LASER’ to cut
through composite material.
-It can cut both cured & uncured metal.