Chemical composition of

the cell
 Element – substance composed of only
one kind of atom which cannot be broken
down into simpler substance by chemical
reactions
 25 essential element – important to living
organism
 C, O, H, N – 96% of the mass of human
body
 Ca, K, P, S, Na, Cl, Mg – 4 %
 Trace elements – Cu, I, Fe – 0.01
- needed in very small quantity
 Compound – substance which consists of
two or more elements chemically
combined in a fixed ratio
 Compound

Organic Inorganic compound

compound
 Organic compound – chemical compounds
which contain C and H
 Inorganic compound – constitute non
living matter, do not contain carbon
 Organic compound – characterise the
structure and function of living things
 Inorganic compound – in a cell – water,
acids, bases, mineral – not synthesised by
cell – obtained from external environment
 CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS IN THE CELL

Carbohydrates C, H, O

Protein C, H, O, N, S, P

Nucleic acid C, H, O, P, N

Water H, O
 Most elements in cells – ions
 Functions of elements in animal cells
and plant cells

ELEMENT FUNCTION
H, C, O, N Synthesis of organic
compounds – lipid,
protein

S A component of some
protein

Sodium (Na) Regulates osmotic

pressure in cells
Help transmission of
nerve impulses
 Find out the functions of other types of
elements that are required in animal cells
and plant cells
 The importance of chemical
compounds in the cell
Carbohydrates -Primary source of energy
-1g – 17 kJ
-Starch – store in plant cells
-Glycogen – store in animal and
plant tissues
-Cellulose – constituent of cell
wall
Lipids -Fats and oil –source of energy
1g - 38 kJ of energy
 -Layer of adipose tissue
- insulation, protection
-Major constituent for plasma
membrane
-Prevent water loss in plants (cuticle)
-Steroid – cholesterol, oestrogen,
progesterone
Protein -Build new cells, renew damaged
tissues
-Synthesis of enzymes, antibodies,
hormones
-Component of plasma membrane
 - Synthesis of haemoglobin

Nucleic -Storegenetic information

acids -DNA, RNA

Water -Major component of all life forms

The importance of water in the cell
 Water is polar molecules – unequal
distribution of charges – each molecule
has a positive end and a negative end
 Exercise
1. Name two major elements found in cells
2. What is the function of phosphate ions in
animal cells?
3. Explain why water is considered a good
solvent
 Polar molecules attract each other, ions
and other polar molecules
- can dissolve many ionic compounds
e.g – salt solution
1. Medium for biochemical reactions
- water is eliminated in synthesis of
protein, sugar
- breaking down proteins, lipids
carbohydrates
2. Solvent
- universal solvent for many biological
molecules
3. Transport medium
- blood plasma contains 90% water
- plasma contains sugar, amino acids
- transported to other parts of the body
4. Maintaining osmotic balance and turgidity
- dissolved inorganic salts in water
maintain the osmotic balance in animal
blood and interstitial fluid
- high osmotic concentration – plant cells
– water enter the cells – turgid
5. Providing support
- water support the structure of the cell
6. Providing moisture
- respiratory gases – dissolve in moist
alveolus – before diffusing – blood
capillaries
 7. Maintaining body temperature
-distribute heat in the body
- eliminate excess heat – perspiration,
urination,defaecation
-plant –transpiration –keep plant tissue
cool
8. High surface tension and cohesion
-very high cohesion
- maintain a continuous flow of water up
the the stem to the leaf
9. Lubrication
- mucus, synovial fluid consist water
-mucus – assist movement of food
substances – intestinal tract
- synovial fluid – ease movement of joint
 Carbohydrates
carbohydrates

Disaccharides
Monosaccharide
Maltose
Simple sugar Sucrose
Glucose lactose
polysaccharides
Fructose
galactose

starch cellulose glycogen

Monosaccharide
- The simplest carbohydrates
- Cannot be broken down
- Known as simple sugar
1. Absorption enables plant and animal cells
to get the substances needed for their
continued survival. Explain how :
a. water and nutrients in soil are
absorbed by the root hair cells
b. oxygen absorption occurs in red blood
cells
(7m)
- Glucose
- grape sugar
- monomer that made up
polysaccharides
- end product in digestion of starches
-fructose
- sweet fruits, honey
- Galactose – in milk
 All monosaccharide are reducing sugar
 Benedict’s test – detect the presence of
reducing sugar
- form brick red precipitate
Disaccharides
- Consist of two monosaccharide joined
together through condensation
 Hydrolysis – chemical reaction that
involves the breaking up large molecules
by adding water
 condensation

Glucose + glucose Maltose + water

condensation
Glucose + fructose Sucrose + water

condensation
Glucose + galactose Lactose + water
 hydrolysis

Maltose + water Glucose + glucose

hydrolysis

Sucrose + water Glucose + fructose

hydrolysis
Lactose + water Glucose + galactose
 All disaccharides taste sweet, able to
crystalline, water soluble
 Sucrose – non reducing sugars
- cane stems, sweet fruit, carrot
 Lactose – reducing sugar
- milk
 Maltose – reducing sugar
- partial digestion of starch
 Benedict test:
 Sucrose – blue colour of Benedict’s
solution remain unchanged
 Hydrolysed into glucose and fructose
when boiled with dilute acids
Polysaccharides
- Monosaccharide can be linked through
condensation reaction of glucose
monomer – form a long chain of
molecules / polymer
 Insoluble in water – large molecular size
 Do not taste sweet, do not crystallise
 Examples :
 Starch – main energy storage compounds
in plants - wheat, rice

 Explain how these cells respond when
placed in distilled water.
1. Plant cells
2. red blood cells
glycogen – reserve of carbohydrates in
animals and yeast
 cellulose - made up the cell walls
 Hydrolysed into smaller molecules –
adding dilutes acids, boiling, enzymes
reaction
Proteins
- Organic molecules made up of C, H, O, N
- Mostly have – S, P
 Made up of one or more polymers known
as polypeptides
 Polypeptides is made up of monomers
called amino acids
- a few to thousand of monomer
 Dipeptide – two molecules of amino acids
linked together by peptide bonds through
condensation reaction

 Broken down into amino acids through
hydrolysis
 condensation
Amino acids + Dipeptide +
amino acids water
Hydrolysis
Types of amino acids
- 20 naturally occurring amino acids
- Two groups
1. essential amino acids
2. non-essential amino acids
 Essential amino acids – cannot be
synthesised by the body
 Non essential amino acids – can be
synthesised by the body
Protein structures
1. Primary structures – linear sequence of
amino acids in a polypeptide chain
2. Secondary structure – polypeptides chain
that is coiled to form an alpha helix / beta
pleated sheets
3. Tertiary structures – the ways of helix
chain or beta pleated sheets are folded
into three dimensional shape of a
polypeptide chain
- e.g. – enzymes, hormones, plasma
proteins, antibodies
4. Quaternary structures
- two or more tertiary structure
polypeptide chains are arranged to form a
large and complex protein molecules
- e.g. – haemoglobin
Lipids
- Organic compounds that contain C, H, O
- The ratio of H:O is higher than 2:1 ratio in
carbohydrates
 Some lipids contain P, N
 Types of lipids :
- fats, oils, waxes, phospholipids, steroids
- Fats, oils – triglycerides
- triglyceride – an ester that is formed
through the condensation of one molecule
of glycerol and three molecules of fatty
acids
Fats and oils
- Consist of one molecules of glycerol and
three molecules of fatty acids
- Fatty acids consist of a long hydrocarbon
chain
 Fats

Saturated fats Unsaturated fats

Contains saturated Contains

fatty acids unsaturated fatty
acids
- Solids at room
temperature -liquids at room
temperature –
oils
Waxes
 Long chained molecules – waterproof
 On the cuticles of the epidermis – leaves,
fruits, seeds
 Sebum – contains wax – softens skins
Phospholipids
 Main components of plasma membranes
Steroids
 Complex organic compounds – cholesterol,
hormones (testosterone, oestrogen,
progesterone)
 Unsaturated fats – less cholesterol
 Liver controls the level of cholesterol in
the blood
 Cholesterol – major component of plasma
membrane
- Components for – steroids, vitamin
 Assignment
 Find out the differences between
saturated fat and unsaturated fat
1. Carbohydrates are important organic
compounds in cells
 Enzymes
 Many biochemical processes occur in a cell
simultaneously at all time
 Metabolism includes :
a. anabolism – metabolic reactions that
build complex molecules
- photosynthesis
b. catabolism – the metabolic reactions that
break down complex molecules
- digestion
 Every metabolic reaction which takes
place within a living organisms is catalysed
by an enzymes
 Enzymes are biological catalysts that
direct or guide almost all cellular reactions
 The general characteristics of
enzymes
 Proteins
 Synthesised by living organisms
 Speed up biochemical reactions without the
enzymes being affected by the reactions
 Highly specific
- catalyse only one kind of substrate
- have active site which bind to specific
substrates
 Needed in small amount
- can process a large number of
substrate molecules
 Most metabolic reactions are reversible
 Enzymes activities can be slowed down or
stopped using inhibitors
- lead, mercury
 Require cofactor to function
- cofactor molecules bind to the
enzymes and help to weaken the
bonds in the substrate molecules
- inorganic cofactor - ferum, copper
- organic cofactor – vitamin B complex
 Naming of enzymes
 The names of enzymes are derived by
adding - ase
Substrate Enzyme

Lactose Lactase
Sucrose Sucrase
Lipid lipase
 Sucrase

Sucrose +water Glucose + fructose

 Intracellular and extracellular
enzymes
 Synthesised by specific cells
 Intracellular enzymes – produced and
retained in the cell for the use of the cell
itself
- in cytoplasm, nucleus, mitochondria,
chloroplast
 Extracellular enzymes – produced in the
cell but secreted from the cell to function
externally
- produced by pancreas – transported
to duodenum
Synthesise of enzymes
- Synthesise in ribosomes
- Information of synthesise of enzymes is
carried by DNA
 DNA – contains
codes to make
protein

Protein is release into

mRNA is synthesised the cytoplasm
according to the
instruction of DNA

mRNA leaves the

Ribosomes acts Specific protein
nucleus and moves to
as a workbench is synthesised
ribosome
for mRNA using this
infromation
 The production of extracellular
enzymes
Proteins that are
DNA carries the
synthesised at the
information for
ribosomes are transported
the synthesise of
through the space within
enzymes
rough ER

Protein are fused with the

membrane of the golgi
Proteins are wrapped in apparatus and empty their
vesicles that are bud off contents into the membranous
from the membranes of space
the rough ER
Proteins are modified
during their transport in
the golgi apparatus

Secretory vesicle containing Vesicle then fuse with the

proteins bud off from the plasma membrane before
golgi apparatus and travel to releasing the proteins outside
the plasma membrane the cell as enzymes
 The mechanism of enzyme action
 Most enzymes are complex, globular
proteins made up of one or more
polypeptide chains
 The polypeptide chains of the enzyme
molecules are folded to form a cleft called
active site
 The active site of an enzyme has
distinctive shape and charges that
complement those of its substrate
 The shape of the substrate must fit the
enzyme precisely if a reaction is to take
place
 The combination of enzyme and substrate
is called lock and key hypothesis
 Exercise
 Two monosaccharides combine to form a
disaccharide with the following equation
Glucose +A B (non reducing sugar) +
X
(a) Identify molecules A, B and X
(b) Name the reaction
(c) What will happen if solution B is tested with
Benedict’s solution
(d) Suggest two ways a disaccharide can break
down into two monosaccharides
 Substrate molecule – key
 Enzyme molecule – lock
 Substrate molecule binds to the active site
to form an enzyme-substrate complex
 The enzyme catalyse the conversion of the
substrate to products
 The enzymes then free to bind to more
molecules of the substrate
 enzyme Products
enzyme Substrate Enzyme –
substrate
complex
 Factors affecting the activity of
enzymes
1. pH
2. Temperature
3. Substrate concentration
4. Enzyme concentration
 Temperature
 Low temperature – enzyme catalysed
reaction take place slowly
 The substrate molecules are moving at
slow rate

 Temperature increase – substrate
molecule move faster
 Collision between substrate and enzyme
molecules occur more frequently
 High temperature – the rate of reaction
between substrate and enzyme increases
 Every 10 C rise in temperature – the rate
of enzymatic reaction in a cell is doubled
- until the optimum temperature is
reached
 Optimum temperature – the temperature
which an enzyme catalyse a reaction at
the maximum rate
 Most enzyme – optimum temperature – 37
C
 Beyond the optimum temperature – the
rate of reaction will decrease –
 Reaction stop at 60 C
 High temperature – the chemical bonds
holding the enzyme molecules begin to
break – destroy the active site – lose its
shape - denatured
 Denaturation – is irreversible
 Most organism cannot survive at
temperature above 40 C
 pH
 The activity of enzymes is affected by the
acidity or alkalinity of the solution in which
they act
 Optimum pH – at which the rate of
enzymatic reaction is at its fastest
 In a cell – optimum pH – 6 – 8
 Change in pH – alter the charges on the
active site of an enzyme – reduce the
ability of both molecules to bind
 Low pH – excess hydrogen ions attach to
the active site of the enzyme – altering
the ionic charges on the active site
 Substrate is unable to bind with enzyme
 Extreme pH – acidic / alkaline – the
configuration of enzyme is altered and
enzyme structure is altered – destroying
its normal function
 Exception – pepsin – function optimally in
acidic condition – pH 2 – in stomach
 Tripsin – pH 8.5 – in duodenum
 The effects of pH on enzymes is reversible
 Substrate concentration
 The rate of an enzyme catalysed reaction
increases in direst proportion to the
substrate concentration until the reaction
reaches a maximum rate
 Beyond the maximum rate – active site of
the enzymes molecules are fully occupied
by the substrate molecules
 Increasing the substrate concentration has
no effect on the rate of reaction
 Low substrate concentration – there are
many active site available – rate of
reaction increases – in direct proportion to
the substrate concentration
 Increase substrate concentration –
increase the rate of reaction – if there are
enough enzyme molecules to catalyse the
additional substrate molecule
 At a certain substrate concentration – the
rate of reaction will not increase further –
become constant – maximum rate
 High substrate concentration – there are
more substrate molecules than enzyme
molecules
 Increase in the substrate concentration
will not alter the rate of reaction
 All active site are filled – the enzymes is
said to be saturated
 The enzymes concentration becomes a
limiting factor
The effects of enzyme concentration on the
activity of enzymes
 The rate of reaction increases when the
enzyme concentration is increased
 More active sites are available
 The rate of reaction is directly proportional
to the concentration of the enzyme until a
maximum rate is achieved
 The concentration of substrate is a limiting
factor
 Find out the uses of enzymes in daily life
and industries