NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING

METHODS

LECTURES - 5
AUTUMN SEMESTER
-2021
BY
PAVITHRA NAGARAJ
Pavithra.nagaraj@rtu.lv
Ultrasonic Testing
 Introduction
• This module presents an introduction to the NDT
method of ultrasonic testing.
• Ultrasonic testing uses high frequency sound energy
to conduct examinations and make measurements.
• Ultrasonic examinations can be conducted on a wide
variety of material forms including castings, forgings,
welds, and composites.
• A considerable amount of information about the part
being examined can be collected, such as the
presence of discontinuities, part or coating thickness;
and acoustical properties can often be correlated to
certain properties of the material.
 Outline
• Applications
• Basic Principles of sound generation
• Pulse echo and through transmission testing
• Inspection applications
• Equipment
– Transducers
– Instrumentation
– Reference Standards
• Data presentation
• Advantages and Limitations
• Glossary of terms
 Basic Principles of Sound
• Sound is produced by a vibrating body and travels in the form of
a wave.
• Sound waves travel through materials by vibrating the particles
that make up the material.
• The pitch of the sound
is determined by the
frequency of the wave
(vibrations or cycles
completed in a certain
period of time).
• Ultrasound is sound
with a pitch too high
to be detected by the
human ear.
 Basic Principles of Sound (cont.)
• The measurement of sound waves from crest to crest
determines its wavelength (λ).
• The time is takes a sound wave to travel a distance of one
complete wavelength is the same amount of time it takes the
source to execute one complete vibration.
• The sound wavelength
is inversely proportional
to its frequency. (λ = 1/f)
• Several wave modes of
vibration are used in
ultrasonic inspection.
The most common are
longitudinal, shear, and
Rayleigh (surface) waves.
 Basic Principles of Sound (cont.)
• Ultrasonic waves are very similar to light
waves in that they can be reflected,
refracted, and focused.
• Reflection and refraction occurs when
sound waves interact with interfaces of
differing acoustic properties.
• In solid materials, the vibrational energy
can be split into different wave modes
when the wave encounters an interface at
an angle other than 90 degrees.
• Ultrasonic reflections from the presence of
discontinuities or geometric features
enables detection and location.
• The velocity of sound in a given material is
constant and can only be altered by a
change in the mode of energy.
 Ultrasound Generation
Ultrasound is generated with a transducer.
A piezoelectric element
in the transducer
converts electrical
energy into mechanical
vibrations (sound), and
vice versa.

The transducer is
capable of both
transmitting and
receiving sound
energy.
Principles of Ultrasonic Inspection
• Ultrasonic waves are introduced into a material where
they travel in a straight line and at a constant speed
until they encounter a surface.
• At surface interfaces some of the wave energy is
reflected and some is transmitted.
• The amount of reflected or transmitted energy can be
detected and provides information about the size of
the reflector.
• The travel time of the sound can be measured and
this provides information on the distance that the
sound has traveled.
 Test Techniques
• Ultrasonic testing is a very versatile inspection method,
and inspections can be accomplished in a number of
different ways.
• Ultrasonic inspection techniques are commonly divided
into three primary classifications.
– Pulse-echo and Through Transmission
(Relates to whether reflected or transmitted energy is used)
– Normal Beam and Angle Beam
(Relates to the angle that the sound energy enters the test article)
– Contact and Immersion
(Relates to the method of coupling the transducer to the test
article)

Each of these techniques will be discussed briefly

in the following slides.
 Test Techniques - Pulse-Echo
• In pulse-echo testing, a transducer sends out a pulse of energy
and the same or a second transducer listens for reflected energy
(an echo).
• Reflections occur due to the presence of discontinuities and the
surfaces of the test article.
f
• The amount of reflected sound energy is displayed versus time,
which provides the inspector information about the size and the
location of features that reflect the sound.

initial
pulse
back surface
echo

crack
echo
crack
plate
0 2 4 6 8 10
UT Instrument Screen
 Test Techniques – Pulse-Echo
(cont.)
Digital display
showing signal
generated from
sound reflecting
off back surface.

Digital display
showing the presence
of a reflector midway
through material, with
lower amplitude back
surface reflector.
The pulse-echo technique allows testing when access to only one
side of the material is possible, and it allows the location of
reflectors to be precisely determined.
Test Techniques – Through-Transmission
• Two transducers located on 11
opposing sides of the test
specimen are used. One T R

transducer acts as a transmitter,

the other as a receiver.
• Discontinuities in the sound path T R

will result in a partial or total loss 2

of sound being transmitted and
be indicated by a decrease in the
received signal amplitude.
• Through transmission is useful in
11

detecting discontinuities that are

not good reflectors, and when 2
signal strength is weak. It does
not provide depth information.
0 2 4 6 8 10
Test Techniques – Through-Transmission

Digital display
showing received
sound through
material
thickness.

Digital display
showing loss of
received signal
due to presence
of a discontinuity
in the sound field.
Test Techniques – Normal and Angle Beam
• In normal beam testing, the sound
beam is introduced into the test
article at 90 degree to the surface.
• In angle beam testing, the sound
beam is introduced into the test
article at some angle other than
90.
• The choice between normal and
angle beam inspection usually
depends on two considerations:
- The orientation of the feature of
interest – the sound should be
directed to produce the largest
reflection from the feature.
- Obstructions on the surface of the
part that must be worked around.
Test Techniques – Contact Vs Immersion
• To get useful levels of sound energy into a material, the air
between the transducer and the test article must be removed.
This is referred to as coupling.
• In contact testing (shown on the previous slides) a couplant
such as water, oil or a gel is applied between the transducer
and the part.
• In immersion testing, the part and the transducer are place in a
water bath. This arrangement allows better movement of the
transducer while maintaining consistent coupling.
• With immersion testing, an echo from the front surface of the
part is seen in the signal but otherwise signal interpretation is
the same for the two techniques.
1 2
IP 1 IP 2 IP = Initial Pulse
FWE FWE FWE = Front Wall
Echo
BWE BWE DE = Defect Echo
DE BWE = Back Wall
Echo

Defect 0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
 Inspection Applications

Some of the applications for which ultrasonic testing may be

employed include:

• Flaw detection (cracks, inclusions, porosity, etc.)

• Erosion & corrosion thickness gauging
• Assessment of bond integrity in adhesively
joined and brazed components
• Estimation of void content in composites and
plastics
• Measurement of case hardening depth in steels
• Estimation of grain size in metals
On the following slides are examples of some
common applications of ultrasonic inspection.
 Thickness Gauging
• Ultrasonic thickness gauging • Applications
is routinely utilized in the include piping
petrochemical and utility systems, storage
industries to determine various and containment
degrees of corrosion/erosion. facilities, and
pressure vessels.
Flaw Detection - Delaminations
Contact, pulse-echo inspection for delaminations
on 36” rolled beam.

Signal showing multiple back

surface echoes in an unflawed area.

Additional echoes indicate

delaminations in the member.
 Flaw Detection in Welds
• One of the most widely
used methods of
inspecting weldments is
ultrasonic inspection.
• Full penetration groove
welds lend themselves
readily to angle beam
shear wave examination.
 Equipment

Equipment for ultrasonic testing is very

diversified. Proper selection is important to
insure accurate inspection data as desired for
specific applications.
In general, there are three basic components
that comprise an ultrasonic test system:
- Instrumentation
- Transducers
- Calibration Standards
 Transducers
• Transducers are manufactured in a variety of
forms, shapes and sizes for varying applications.
• Transducers are categorized in a number of ways
which include:
- Contact or immersion
- Single or dual element
- Normal or angle beam
• In selecting a transducer
for a given application, it
is important to choose the
desired frequency,
bandwidth, size, and in some cases focusing
which optimizes the inspection capabilities.
 Contact Transducers
Contact transducers are
designed to withstand
rigorous use, and usually
have a wear plate on the
bottom surface to protect
the piezoelectric element
from contact with the
surface of the test article.
Many incorporate
ergonomic designs for
ease of grip while scanning
along the surface.
 Contact Transducers (cont.)
• Contact transducers are available
with two piezoelectric crystals in
one housing. These transducers
are called dual element
transducers.
• One crystal acts as a transmitter,
the other as a receiver.
• This arrangement improves near
surface resolution because the
second transducer does not need
to complete a transmit function
before listening for echoes.
• Dual elements are commonly
employed in thickness gauging of
thin materials.
 Contact Transducers (cont.)
• A way to improve near surface
resolution with a single element
transducer is through the use of a delay
line.
• Delay line transducers have a plastic
piece that is a sound path that provides
a time delay between the sound
generation and reception of reflected
energy.
• Interchangeable pieces make it possible
to configure the transducer with
insulating wear caps or flexible
membranes that conform to rough
surfaces.
• Common applications include thickness
gauging and high temperature
measurements.
 Transducers (cont.)
• Angle beam transducers
incorporate wedges to introduce
a refracted shear wave into a
material.
• The incident wedge angle is used
with the material velocity to
determine the desired refracted
shear wave according to Snell’s
Law)
• Transducers can use fixed or
variable wedge angles.
• Common application is in weld
examination.
 Transducers (cont.)
• Immersion transducers are
designed to transmit sound
whereby the transducer and
test specimen are immersed in
a liquid coupling medium
(usually water).
• Immersion transducers
are manufactured with
planar, cylindrical or spherical
acoustic
lenses (focusing lens).
 Instrumentation
• Ultrasonic equipment is usually purchased to satisfy
specific inspection needs, some users may purchase
general purpose equipment to fulfill a number of
inspection applications.
• Test equipment can be classified in a number of
different ways, this may include portable or
stationary, contact or immersion, manual or
automated.
• Further classification of instruments commonly
divides them into four general categories: D-meters,
Flaw detectors, Industrial and special application.
 Instrumentation (cont.)
• D-meters or digital
thickness gauge
instruments provide the
user with a digital
(numeric) readout.
• They are designed
primarily for
corrosion/erosion
inspection applications.
• Some instruments provide the user with both a
digital readout and a display of the signal. A
distinct advantage of these units is that they allow
the user to evaluate the signal to ensure that the
digital measurements are of the desired features.
 Instrumentation (cont.)
• Flaw detectors are
instruments designed primarily
for the inspection of
components for defects.
• However, the signal can be
evaluated to obtain other
information such as material
thickness values.
• Both analog and digital display.
• Offer the user options of gating
horizontal sweep and
amplitude threshold.
 Instrumentation (cont.)
• Industrial flaw detection
instruments, provide users
with more options than
standard flaw detectors.
• May be modulated units
allowing users to tailor the
instrument for their specific
needs.
• Generally not as portable
as standard flaw detectors.
 Instrumentation (cont.)
• Immersion ultrasonic scanning
systems are used for automated
data acquisition and imaging.
• They integrate an immersion
tank, ultrasonic instrumentation,
a scanning bridge, and computer
controls.
• The signal strength and/or the
time-of-flight of the signal is
measured for every point in the
scan plan.
• The value of the data is plotted
using colors or shades of gray to
produce detailed images of the
surface or internal features of a
component.
 Images of a Quarter Produced With an
Ultrasonic Immersion Scanning System

Gray scale image produced using Gray scale image produced using the
the sound reflected from the front sound reflected from the back surface
surface of the coin of the coin (inspected from “heads” side)
 Calibration Standards

Calibration is a operation of configuring the ultrasonic

test equipment to known values. This provides the
inspector with a means of comparing test signals to
known measurements.
Calibration standards come in a wide variety of material
types, and configurations due to the diversity of
inspection applications.
Calibration standards are typically manufactured from
materials of the same acoustic properties as those of
the test articles.
The following slides provide examples of specific types
of standards.
 Calibration Standards (cont.)

Thickness calibration
standards may be flat or
curved for pipe and tubing
applications, consisting of
simple variations in ASTM Distance/Area Amplitude
material thickness.
Distance/Area Amplitude
standards utilize flat bottom
holes or side drilled holes to
establish known reflector NAVSHIPS
size with changes in sound
path form the entry surface.
Calibration Standards (cont.)
There are also calibration IIW
standards for use in angle
beam inspections when
flaws are not parallel to
entry surface. DSC DC Rhompas

These standards utilized

side drilled holes, notches,
and geometric SC
configuration to establish
time distance and
amplitude relationships.

ASME Pipe Sec. XI

 Qualification Standards
Qualification AWS Resolution DC-dB Accuracy
standards differ from
calibration standards
in that their use is for
purposes of varying
proper equipment
operation and
qualification of
equipment use for IOW Beam Profile
specific codes and
standards.
 Data Presentation

• Information from ultrasonic testing can be presented in

a number of differing formats.
• Three of the more common formats include:
– A-scan
– B-scan
– C-scan

These three formats will be discussed in the next few

slides.
 Data Presentation - A-scan

Signal Amplitude
• A-scan presentation
displays the amount of
received ultrasonic energy
as a function of time.
• Relative discontinuity size
can be estimated by Time
comparing the signal
amplitude to that from a
known reflector.

Signal Amplitude
• Reflector depth can be
determined by the position
of the signal on the
horizontal sweep.
Time
 Data Presentation - B-scan
• B-scan presentations display a
profile view (cross-sectional) of a
test specimen.
• Only the reflector depth in the
cross-section and the linear
dimensions can be determined.
• A limitation to this display
technique is that reflectors may
be masked by larger reflectors
near the surface.
 Data Presentation - C-scan
• The C-scan presentation displays a plan type view of
the test specimen and discontinuities.
• C-scan presentations are produced with an automated
data acquisition system, such as in immersion
scanning.
• Use of A-scan in conjunction with C-scan is necessary
when depth determination is desired.

Photo of a Composite C-Scan Image of

Component Internal Features
Advantage of Ultrasonic Testing

• Sensitive to both surface and subsurface discontinuities.

• Depth of penetration for flaw detection or measurement is
superior to other methods.
• Only single-sided access is needed when pulse-echo
technique is used.
• High accuracy in determining reflector position and
estimating size and shape.
• Minimal part preparation required.
• Electronic equipment provides instantaneous results.
• Detailed images can be produced with automated systems.
• Has other uses such as thickness measurements, in
addition to flaw detection.
Limitations of Ultrasonic Testing
• Surface must be accessible to transmit ultrasound.
• Skill and training is more extensive than with some other methods.
• Normally requires a coupling medium to promote transfer of sound
energy into test specimen.
• Materials that are rough, irregular in shape, very small,
exceptionally thin or not homogeneous are difficult to inspect.
• Cast iron and other coarse grained materials are difficult to inspect
due to low sound transmission and high signal noise.
• Linear defects oriented parallel to the sound beam may go
undetected.
• Reference standards are required for both equipment calibration,
and characterization of flaws.
THANKYOU……
.