ISOTHERMAL TRANSFORMATION DIAGRAMS

 Consider again the iron–iron carbide eutectoid reaction which is fundamental to the development of
microstructure in steel alloys.
 Upon cooling, austenite, having an intermediate carbon concentration, transforms to a ferrite phase,
having a much lower carbon content, and also cementite, with a much higher carbon concentration.
Pearlite is one microstructural product of this transformation

 Temperature plays an important role in the rate of the austenite-to-pearlite transformation.The

temperature dependence for an iron–carbon alloy of eutectoid composition is indicated in Figure 10.12,
which plots S-shaped curves of the percentage transformation versus the logarithm of time at three
different temperatures.
Figure 10.12 For an iron–carbon alloy of eutectoid composition (0.76 wt% C),isothermal
fraction reacted versus the logarithm of time for the austenite-to-pearlite transformation.
 A more convenient way of representing both the time
and temperature dependence of this transformation is in
the bottom portion of Figure 10.13.
 Here, the vertical and horizontal axes are, respectively,
temperature and the logarithm of time.
 Two solid curves are plotted; one represents the time
required at each temperature for the initiation or start of
the transformation; the other is for the transformation
 conclusion.
 The dashed curve corresponds to 50% of transformation
completion.
 These curves were generated from a series of plots of
the percentage transformation versus the logarithm of
time taken over a range of temperatures.
 The S-shaped curve [for (675 oC )], in the upper portion
of Figure 10.13, illustrates how the data transfer is
made.
Figure 10.13 Demonstration of how an isothermal
transformation diagram (bottom) is generated from percentage
transformation-versus-logarithm of time measurements (top)..
 In interpreting this diagram, note first that the eutectoid
temperature [ (727oC )] is indicated by a horizontal line; at
temperatures above the eutectoid and for all times, only austenite
will exist, as indicated in the figure.
 The austenite-to-pearlite transformation will occur only if an alloy
is supercooled to below the eutectoid; as indicated by the curves,
the time necessary for the transformation to begin and then end
depends on temperature.
 The start and finish curves are nearly parallel, and they approach
the eutectoid line asymptotically.
 To the left of the transformation start curve, only austenite (which
is unstable) will be present, whereas to the right of the finish
curve, only pearlite will exist.
 Thus, from Figure 10.13, at temperatures just below the eutectoid
(corresponding to just a slight degree of undercooling) very long
times (on the order of s) are required for the 50% transformation,
and therefore the reaction rate is very slow.
 The transformation rate increases with decreasing temperature
such that at (540oC ) only about 3 s is required for the reaction to
go to 50% completion.

Figure 10.13 Demonstration of how an isothermal transformation diagram (bottom) is generated from percentage
transformation-versus-logarithm of time measurements (top)..
 Several constraints are imposed on using diagrams like Figure
10.13.
 First, this particular plot is valid only for an iron–carbon alloy of
eutectoid composition; for other compositions, the curves will
have different configurations.
 In addition, these plots are accurate only for transformations in
which the temperature of the alloy is held constant throughout the
duration of the reaction.

 Conditions of constant temperature are termed isothermal; thus,

plots such as Figure 10.13 are referred to as isothermal
transformation diagrams, or sometimes as Time–Temperature–
Transformation (or T–T–T) plots.

Figure 10.13 Demonstration of how an isothermal transformation diagram (bottom) is generated from percentage
transformation-versus-logarithm of time measurements (top)..
 An actual isothermal heat treatment curve
(ABCD) is superimposed on the isothermal
transformation diagram for a eutectoid iron–
carbon alloy in Figure 10.14.
 Very rapid cooling of austenite to a
temperature is indicated by the near-vertical
line AB, and the isothermal treatment at this
temperature is represented by the horizontal
segment BCD.
 Of course, time increases from left to right
along this line.
 The transformation of austenite to pearlite
begins at the intersection, point C (after
approximately 3.5 s), and has reached
completion by about 15 s, corresponding to
point D.
 Figure 10.14 also shows schematic
microstructures at various times during the
progression of the reaction
 The thickness ratio of the ferrite and
cementite layers in pearlite is approximately Figure 10.14 Isothermal transformation diagram for a eutectoid iron–
8 to 1. carbon alloy, with superimposed isothermal heat treatment curve
(ABCD). Microstructures before, during, and after the austenite-to
pearlite transformation are shown.
 The thickness ratio of the ferrite and cementite
layers in pearlite is approximately 8 to 1.
 However, the absolute layer thickness depends on
the temperature at which the isothermal
transformation is allowed to occur.
 At temperatures just below the eutectoid, relatively
thick layers of both the -ferrite and Fe3C phases
 are produced; this microstructure is called coarse
pearlite, and the region at which it forms is
indicated to the right of the completion curve on
Figure 10.14 At these temperatures, diffusion rates
are relatively high,
 With decreasing temperature, the carbon diffusion
rate decreases, and the layers become progressively
thinner. The thin-layered structure produced in the
vicinity of is termed fine pearlite; this is also
indicated in Figure 10.14.

Figure 10.14 Isothermal transformation diagram for a eutectoid iron–

carbon alloy, with superimposed isothermal heat treatment curve
(ABCD). Microstructures before, during, and after the austenite-to
pearlite transformation are shown.
 For iron–carbon alloys of other compositions, a
proeutectoid phase (either ferrite or cementite) will
coexist with pearlite, as discussed in iron carbon
diagram)
 additional curves corresponding to a proeutectoid
transformation also must be included on the
isothermal transformation diagram. A portion of
one such diagram for a 1.13 wt% C alloy is shown
in Figure 10.16.

Figure 10.16 Isothermal transformation diagram for a 1.13 wt

% C iron–carbon alloy: A, austenite; C, proeutectoid
cementite; P, pearlite.
 Bainite:
 In addition to pearlite, other microconstituents that are
products of the austenitic transformation exist; one of
these is called bainite.
 The microstructure of bainite consists of ferrite and
cementite phases, and thus diffusional processes are
involved in its formation‫ز‬
 Bainite forms as needles or plates, depending on the
temperature of the transformation; the microstructural
details of bainite are so fine that their resolution is
possible only using electron microscopy.

 Figure 10.17 is an electron micrograph that shows a

grain of bainite (positioned diagonally from lower left
to upper right); it is composed of a ferrite matrix and
elongated particles of Fe3C; the various phases in this
micrograph have been labeled. In addition, the phase
Figure 10.17 Transmission electron micrograph showing the
that surrounds the needle is martensite, the topic to structure of bainite. A grain of bainite passes from lower left
which a subsequent section is addressed. Furthermore, to upper right-hand corners, which consists of elongated
no proeutectoid phase forms with bainite. and needle-shaped particles of Fe3C within a ferrite matrix.
The phase surrounding the bainite is martensite.
 The time–temperature dependence of the bainite
transformation may also be represented on the
isothermal transformation diagram. It occurs at
temperatures below those at which pearlite forms;
begin-, end-, and half-reaction curves are just
 extensions of those for the pearlitic transformation,
as shown in Figure 10.18, the isothermal
transformation diagram for an iron–carbon alloy of
eutectoid composition that has been extended to
lower temperatures. All three curves are C-shaped
and have a “nose” at point N, where the rate of
transformation is a maximum.
 As may be noted, whereas pearlite forms above the
nose [i.e., over the temperature range of about 540
o
C to 727 oC], at temperatures between about (215
and 420 oC), bainite is the transformation product.
 It should also be noted that pearlitic and bainitic
transformations are really competitive with each other, and once Figure 10.18 Isothermal transformation
some portion of an alloy has transformed to either pearlite or diagram for an iron–carbon alloy of
bainite, transformation to the other microconstituent is not eutectoid composition, including
austenite-to-pearlite (A–P) and austenite
possible without reheating to form austenite.
to-bainite (A–B) transformations.
 Spheroidite:
o If a steel alloy having either pearlitic or bainitic microstructures is
heated to, and left at, a temperature below the eutectoid for a sufficiently
long period of time—for example, at about ( 700 oC) for between 18 and
24 h—yet another microstructure will form. It is called spheroidite
(Figure 10.19).
o Instead of the alternating ferrite and cementite lamellae (pearlite), or
the microstructure observed for bainite, the Fe3C phase appears as
sphere-like particles embedded in a continuous phase α phase matrix.
o This transformation has occurred by additional carbon diffusion with no
change in the compositions or relative amounts of ferrite and cementite
phases
o The driving force for this transformation is the reduction in α–Fe3C
phase boundary area. The kinetics of spheroidite formation are not
included on isothermal transformation diagrams.

 It should also be noted that pearlitic and bainitic

transformations are really competitive with each other, and once Figure 10.19 Photomicrograph of a steel
some portion of an alloy has transformed to either pearlite or having a spheroidite microstructure. The
bainite, transformation to the other microconstituent is not small particles are cementite; the continuous
possible without reheating to form austenite. phase is α ferrite. 1000×
 Martensite
 Another microconstituent or phase called martensite is formed when
austenitized iron–carbon alloys are rapidly cooled (or quenched) to a
relatively low temperature (in the vicinity of the ambient).
 Martensite is a nonequilibrium single-phase structure that results from a
diffusionless transformation of austenite.
 The martensitic transformation occurs when the quenching rate is rapid
enough to prevent carbon diffusion. Any diffusion whatsoever will result in
the formation of ferrite and cementite phases.
 The martensitic transformation occurs in such a way that the FCC austenite experiences Figure 10.20 The body-centered
a polymorphic transformation to a body-centered tetragonal (BCT) martensite. tetragonal unit cell for martensitic
 A unit cell of this crystal structure (Figure 10.20) is simply a body-centered cube that steel showing iron atoms (circles)
has been elongated along one of its dimensions; this structure is distinctly different from and sites that may be occupied by
that for BCC ferrite. carbon atoms (crosses). For this
tetragonal unit cell, c > a.
 All the carbon atoms remain as interstitial impurities in martensite; as such, they
constitute a supersaturated solid solution that is capable of rapidly transforming to
other structures if heated to temperatures at which diffusion rates become appreciable.
 Since the martensitic transformation does not involve diffusion, it occurs almost
instantaneously; the martensite grains nucleate and grow at a very rapid rate—the velocity
of sound within the austenite matrix. Thus the martensitic transformation ate, for all
practical purposes, is time independent.
 Martensite…. Continued.
 Being a nonequilibrium phase, martensite does not appear on
the iron–iron carbide phase diagram as shown before).
 The austenite-to-martensite transformation, however, is
represented on the isothermal transformation diagram.
 Because the martensitic transformation is diffusionless and
instantaneous, it is not depicted in this diagram as the pearlitic
and bainitic reactions are.
 The beginning of this transformation is represented by a
horizontal line designated M(start) (Figure 10.22).
 Two other horizontal and dashed lines, labeled M(50%) and
M(90%), indicate percentages of the austenite-to-martensite
transformation.
 The temperatures at which these lines are located vary with
alloy composition, but they must be relatively low because
carbon diffusion must be virtually nonexistent.
 The horizontal and linear character of these lines indicates that
the martensitic transformation is independent of time; it is a (Figure 10.22 The complete isothermal
transformation diagram for an iron–carbon
function only of the temperature to which the alloy is quenched
alloy of eutectoid composition: A, austenite;
or rapidly cooled. B, bainite; M, martensite; P, pearlite
 A transformation of this type is termed an athermal transformation
 Martensite…. Continued.
 Consider an alloy of eutectoid composition that is very
rapidly cooled from a temperature above 727oC (1341F) to,
say, 165oC (330F). From the isothermal transformation
diagram (Figure 10.22) it may be noted that 50% of the
austenite will immediately transform into martensite; as
long as this temperature is maintained, there will be no
further transformation

The presence of alloying elements other than carbon (e.g., Cr,

Ni, Mo, and W)
 may cause significant changes in the positions and shapes of
the curves in the isothermal transformation diagrams. These
include
 (1) shifting to longer times the nose of the austenite-to-
pearlite transformation (and also a proeutectoid phase nose,
if such exists), and
 (2) the formation of a separate bainite nose. These
alterations may be observed by comparing Figures 10.22 and (Figure 10.22 The complete isothermal
10.23, which are isothermal transformation diagrams for transformation diagram for an iron–carbon
carbon and alloy steels, respectively. alloy of eutectoid composition: A, austenite;
B, bainite; M, martensite; P, pearlite
Figure 13-7 The TTT diagrams for (a) a 1050 and (b) a 10110 steel
Chapter 13 Heat Treatment of Steels and Cast Irons
The Science and Engineering of Materials-Seventh Edition-2014
Donald R. Askeland
 Interrupting the Isothermal Transformation
Complicated microstructures are produced by interrupting
the isothermal heat treatment.
 For example,
1. we could austenitize the 1050 steel (Figure 13-8) at
800°C,
2. quench to 650°C and hold for 10 s (permitting some
ferrite and pearlite to form), then
3. quench to 350°C and hold for 1 h (3600 s). Whatever
unstable austenite remained before quenching to 350°C
transforms to bainite. The final structure is ferrite,
pearlite, and bainite.
4. We could complicate the treatment further by interrupting
the treatment at 350°C after 1 min (60 s) and quenching.
Any austenite remaining after 1 min at 350°C forms
martensite. The final structure now contains ferrite,
pearlite, bainite, and martensite. Figure 13-8 Producing
 Note that each time we change the temperature, we start at zero time! In complicated structures
practice, temperatures cannot be changed instantaneously (i.e., we cannot by interrupting the
go instantly from 800 to 650 or 650 to 350°C). This is why it is better to isothermal heat treatment
use the continuous cooling transformation (CCT) diagrams. of a 1050 steel.
 Example Design of a Heat Treatment for an
Axle
A heat treatment is needed to produce a uniform
microstructure and hardness of HRC 23 in a
1050 steel axle.
solution
 We might attempt this task in several ways. We could
austenitize the steel, then cool at an appropriate rate by
annealing or normalizing to obtain the correct
hardness. By doing this, however, we find that the
structure and hardness vary from the surface to the
 Acenter of the axle.
better approach is to use an isothermal heat treatment. From
Figure 13-7, we find that a hardness of HRC 23 is obtained by
transforming austenite to a mixture of ferrite and pearlite at
600°C. Figure 13-7
 From Figure 13-1, we find that the A3 temperature is 770°C. The TTT
Therefore, our heat treatment is diagrams for
(a) a 1050
1. Austenitize the steel at 7701(30 to 55)5800°C to 825°C,holding
for 1 h and obtaining 100% ɤ.
2. 2. Quench the steel to 600°C and hold for a minimum of 10 s.
 Example Design of a Heat Treatment for an
Axle
A heat treatment is needed to produce a uniform
microstructure and hardness of HRC 23 in a 1050
steel axle.
Solution …… continued
2. Quench the steel to 600°C and hold for a minimum of 10
s.
 Primary ferrite begins to precipitate from the unstable
austenite after about 1.0 s.
 After 1.5  s, pearlite begins to grow, and the austenite is
completely transformed to ferrite and pearlite after about
10 s.
 After this treatment, the microconstituents present are

Figure 13-7
The TTT
diagrams for
(a) a 1050
 We can develop a continuous cooling
transformation(CCT) diagram by
determining the micro-structures produced
in the steel at various rates of cooling. The
CCT curve for a 1080 steel is shown in
Figure 13-14.
 If we cool a 1080 steel at 5°C/s, the CCT diagram
tells us that we obtain coarse pearlite; we have
annealed the steel.
 Cooling at 35°C/s gives fine pearlite and is a
normalizing heat treatment.
 Cooling at 100°C/s permits pearlite to start
forming, but the reaction is incomplete and the
remaining austenite changes to martensite.
 We obtain 100% martensite and thus are able to
perform a quench and temper heat treatment only if Figure 13-14 The CCT diagram (solid lines) for a 1080 steel compared
we cool faster than 140°C/s. with the TTT diagram (dashed lines).
 Other steels, such as the low-carbon steel
in Figure 13-15 have more complicated
CCT diagrams.
 You can find a compilation of TTT and CCT
diagrams for different grades of steels in
various handbooks. Figure 13-14.

Alloying elements are added to steels to

(a) provide solid-solution strengthening of ferrite,
(b) cause the precipitation of alloy carbides rather
than that of Fe3C,
(c) improve corrosion resistance and other special
characteristics of the steel, and
(d) improve hardenability.
Figure 13-15 The CCT diagram for a
 The term hardenability describes the ease with which steels can form low-alloy, 0.2% C steel.
martensite in a thick section of steel that is quenched.
 With a more hardenable steel we can “get away” with a relatively slow cooling rate
and still form martensite. Improving hardenability is most important in alloy and tool
steels.
Hardenability In plain carbon steels, the nose of the TTT and CCT curves occurs at very
short times; hence, very fast cooling rates are required to produce all martensite.
 In thin sections of steel, the rapid quench produces distortion and cracking. In thick
steels, we are unable to produce martensite.

All common alloying elements in steel shift the TTT and CCT diagrams to
longer times, permitting us to obtain all martensite even in thick sections at
slow cooling rates. Figure 13-16 shows the TTT and CCT curves for a 4340
steel.
Describe the microstructure present in a
10110 steel after each step in the following
heat treatments:

(a) heat to 900°C, quench to 400°C and hold for 103 s,

and quench to 25°C;
(b) heat to 900°C, quench to 600°C and hold for 50 s,
and quench to 25°C;
(c) heat to 900°C and quench to 25°C;
(d) heat to 900°C, quench to 300°C and hold for 200 s,
and quench to 25°C;
(e) heat to 900°C, quench to 675°C and hold for 1 s,
and quench to 25°C;
(f) heat to 900°C, quench to 675°C and hold for 1 s,
quench to 400°C and hold for 900 s, and slowly cool to
25°C;
(g) heat to 900°C, quench to 675°C and hold for 1 s,
quench to 300°C and hold for 103 s, and air cool to
25°C; and The TTT diagrams for (b) a 10110 steel
(h) heat to 900°C, quench to 300°C and hold for 100 s,
quench to 25°C, heat to 450°C for 3600 s, and cool to
25°C.
Figure 13-16 (a) TTT and (b) CCT diagrams for a 4340 steel.
 (Figure 10.22 The complete isothermal transformation
Figure 10.23 Isothermal transformation diagram for an alloy diagram for an iron–carbon alloy of eutectoid
steel (type 4340): A, austenite; B, bainite; P, pearlite; M, composition: A, austenite; B, bainite; M, martensite; P,
martensite; F, proeutectoid ferrite pearlite
Microstructural Determinations for Three Isothermal
Heat Treatments
Example Problem 10.3.
 Using the isothermal transformation diagram for
an iron–carbon alloy of eutectoid composition
(Figure 10.22), specify the nature of the final
microstructure (in terms of microconstituents
present and approximate percentages) of a small
specimen that has been subjected to the following
time–temperature treatments.
 In each case, assume that the specimen begins at
760oC (1400oF) and that it has been held at this
temperature long enough to have achieved a
complete and homogeneous austenitic structure
(a) Rapidly cool to 350oC (660oF), hold for 104 s, and quench to
room temperature.
(b) Rapidly cool to 250oC (480oF), hold for 100 s, and quench to
room temperature.
(c) Rapidly cool to 650oC (1200oF), hold for 20 s, rapidly cool Figure 10.24Isothermal transformation diagram for
to 400oC (750oF), hold for 103 s, and quench to room an iron–carbon alloy of eutectoid composition and
temperature the isothermal heat treatments (a), (b), and (c) in
Example Problem 10.3.
Have You Ever Wondered?
● What is the most widely used engineered material?
● What makes stainless steels “stainless?”
● What is the difference between cast iron and steel?
● Are stainless steels ferromagnetic?
Chapter Learning Objectives
The key objectives of this chapter are to

● Recognize and explain the various designations for different classes

of steels.
● Design various heat treatments to produce specific microstructures
and properties for steels using time-temperature-transformation
and continuous cooling diagrams as needed.
● Differentiate between the classes of steels: plain carbon steels, alloy
steels, stainless steels, tool steels, specialty steels, and the
subclasses within each of these.
● List common alloying elements of steel and their purposes.
● Explain and recognize the various designations for different cast
irons.
 Chapter Learning Objectives
The key objectives of this chapter are to

Ferrous alloys, which are based on iron-carbon alloys, include plain carbon steels, alloy
and tool steels, stainless steels, and cast irons. These are the most widely used
materials in the world.
In the history of civilization, these materials made their mark by defining the Iron Age.
Steels typically are produced in two ways: by refining iron ore or by recycling scrap
steel..

In producing primary steel, iron ore (processed to contain 50 to 70% iron oxide, Fe2O3or
Fe3O4) is heated in a blast furnace in the presence of coke (a form of carbon) and oxygen.
The coke reduces the iron oxide into a crude molten iron known hot metal or pig iron
At ,1600°C, this material contains about as. 95% iron; 4% carbon; 0.3 to 0.9% silicon; 0.5%
manganese; and 0.025 to 0.05% of sulfur, phosphorus, and titanium.
 Chapter Learning Objectives
 Steel has a carbon content up to a maximum of ,2.14% on a weight basis.
Because the liquid pig iron contains a large amount of carbon, oxygen is
blown into it in the basic oxygen furnace(BOF) to eliminate the excess
carbon and produce liquid steel.
 In the second method, scrap is often melted in an electric arc furnace in
which the heat of the arc melts the scrap.
 Many alloy and specialty steels, such as stainless steels, are produced using
electric melting.
 Molten steels (including stainless steels) often undergo further refining.
 The goal here is to reduce the levels of impurities such as phosphorus and
sulfur and to bring the carbon to the desired level.
 Molten steel is poured into molds to produce finished steel castings or cast into
shapes that are later processed through metal-forming techniques such as rolling or
forging.
Designations and Classification of Steels
 The dividing point between “steels” and “cast irons” is 2.14% C, where the
eutectic reaction becomes possible.
 For steels, we concentrate on the eutectoid portion of the diagram (Figure 13-1)
in which the solubility lines and the eutectoid isotherm are specially identified.

 The A3 shows the temperature at which ferrite starts to form on

cooling; the Acm shows the temperature at which cementite starts
to form; and the A1is the eutectoid temperature.
Designations
 The AISI (American Iron and Steel Institute) and SAE (Society of Automotive Engineers) provide
designation systems (Table 13-1) that use a four- or five-digit number to identify each steel alloy.
The first two numbers refer to the major alloying elements present, and the last two or three
numbers refer to the percentage of carbon.
 An AISI 1040 steel is a plain carbon steel with 0.40% C.
 An SAE 10120 steel is a plain carbon steel containing 1.20% C.
 An AISI 4340 steel is an alloy steel containing 0.40% C
The Iron–Iron Carbide
(Fe–Fe3C) Phase
Diagram
Figure 13-1 The Iron–Iron Carbide (Fe–Fe3C) Phase Diagram
Portion of
Iron-carbon
Diagram
which
represents
Carbon
Steels

In their simplest form, steels are alloys of Iron (Fe) and Carbon (C).
 Designations and Classification of Steels

 Almost all of the heat treatments of steel are directed toward

producing the mixture of ferrite and cementite that gives the proper
combination of properties.
• Figure 13-2 shows the three important microconstituents, or
arrangements of ferrite and cementite, that are usually sought.
 Pearlite is a microconstituent consisting of a lamellar mixture of
ferrite and cementite.
 In bainite, which is obtained by transformation of austenite at a
large undercooling, the cementite is more rounded than in pearlite.
 Tempered martensite, a mixture of very fine and nearly round
cementite in ferrite, forms when martensite is reheated following
its formation.
Figure 13-2 Micrographs of (a) pearlite, (b) bainite, and (c)
tempered martensite, illustrating the differences in cementite size
and shape among the three microconstituents (37500). (From The
Making, Shaping and Treating of Steel, 10th Ed. Courtesy of the
Association for Iron & Steel Technology.)
 the low carbon concentration of the steel allows much more
Allotriomorphic ferrite in a Fe-0.4%C steel allotriomorphic ferrite to form with the grains therefore
which is slowly cooled; the remaining dark- appearing equiaxed because of the effects of hard impingent.
etching microstructure is fine pearlite. The amount of pearlite is reduced because of the lower carbon
concentration of the steel.
Another optical micrograph showing
colonies of pearlite The final optical microstructure appears as in Fig. above,
consisting of colonies of pearlite, i.e., regions which
participated in cooperative growth at a common front. In this
two-dimensional section, each colony appears as if it is a
stack of layers of cementite and ferrite. The colonies appear
to have different interlamellar spacing, but this may be a
sectioning effect.
Structure of hypereutectoid steel (light microscope, medium
magnification) The white areas a pure cementite
 Classifications Steels can be classified based on their composition or the
way they have been processed.
 Carbon steels contain up to ,2% carbon. These steels may also contain other
elements, such as Si (maximum 0.6%), Cu (up to 0.6%), and Mn (up to 1.65%)
Decarburized steels contain less than 0.005% C. Ultra-low carbon steels contain
a maximum of 0.03% carbon. They also contain very low levels of other
elements such as Si and Mn.
Low-carbon steels contain 0.04 to 0.15% carbon.
 These low-carbon steels are used for making car bodies and hundreds of other
applications.
Mild steel contains 0.15 to 0.3% carbon.
 This steel is used in piping and structures such as buildings and bridges.
Medium-carbon steels contain 0.3 to 0.6% carbon.
 These are used for example, in making machinery, tractors, and mining
equipment.
High-carbon steels contain above 0.6% carbon.
 These are used in making springs, railroad car wheels, and the like
 Note that cast irons are Fe-C alloys containing 2 to 4% carbon
Alloy steels are compositions that contain more significant levels of alloying
elements.
• They improve the hardenability of steels.
• The AISI defines alloy steels as steels that exceed one or more of the following
composition limits: $1.65% Mn, 0.6% Si, or 0.6% Cu.
• The total carbon content is up to 1%, and the total alloying element content is
below 5%.
• A material is also an alloy steel if a definite concentration of alloying elements
(often Ni, Cr, Mo, or Ti) is specified.
 These steels are used for making tools (hammers, chisels, etc.) and also in
making parts such as axles, shafts, and gears.
 Certain specialty steels may contain higher levels of sulfur (.0.1%) or lead
(,0.15 to 0.35%) to provide machinability. These, however, cannot be welded
easily
 In “green steel,” lead, an environmental toxin, is replaced with tin and/or
antimony.
 Note that cast irons are Fe-C alloys containing 2 to 4% carbon
 Steels can also be classified based on their processing. For example, the term
“concast steels” refers to continuously cast steels. Galvanized steels have a zinc
coating for corrosion resistance. Similarly, tin-plated steel is used to make
corrosion-resistant cans and other products.
“E-steels” are steels that are melted using an electric furnace, while “B-steels”
contain a small (0.0005 to 0.003%), yet significant, concentration of boron.
“Germ-resistant” coated stainless steels also exist.

Simple Heat Treatments

Four simple heat treatments—1-process annealing, 2-annealing, 3-
normalizing, and 4-spheroidizing—are commonly used for steels (Figure 13-3).
These heat treatments are used to accomplish one of three purposes:
(1) eliminating the effects of cold work,
(2) controlling dispersion strengthening, or
(3) improving machinability.
 Process Annealing—Eliminating Cold Work
 The recrystallization heat treatment used to eliminate the effect of cold working in
steels with less than about 0.25% C is called a process anneal.
•The process anneal is done 80°C to 170°C below the A1 temperature.
o The process anneal treatment for steels is to significantly reduce or eliminate residual
stresses.

Figure 13-3 Schematic summary of the simple heat treatments for

(a) hypoeutectoid steels and (b) hypereutectoid steels
 Steels can be dispersion-strengthened by controlling the fineness of
pearlite
o The steel is initially heated to produce homogeneous austenite (FCC ɤ
phase), a step called austenitizing.
o Annealing, or a full anneal, allows the steel to cool slowly in a furnace,
producing coarse pearlite.
oNormalizing allows the steel to cool more rapidly, in air, producing fine
pearlite.
 Figure 13-4 shows the typical properties obtained by annealing and
normalizing plain carbon steels (next slide)
For Annealing,
 Austenitizing of hypoeutectoid steels is conducted about 30°C above the A3 ,
producing 100% austenite ɤ;
however,
 Austenitizing of a hypereutectoid steel is done at about 30°C above the A1,
producing austenite and Fe3C. This process prevents the formation of a brittle,
continuous film of Fe3C at the grain boundaries that occurs on slow cooling from the
Figure 13-4 The effect of carbon and heat treatment on the properties of plain carbon
steels.
For Annealing,
 Austenitizing of hypoeutectoid steels is conducted about 30°C above the A3 ,
producing 100% austenite ɤ;
however,
 Austenitizing of a hypereutectoid steel is done at about 30°C above the A1,
producing austenite and Fe3C. This process prevents the formation of a brittle,
continuous film of Fe3C at the grain boundaries that occurs on slow cooling
from the 100% ɤ .
 In both cases, the slow furnace cool and coarse pearlite provide
relatively low strength and good ductility
 For Normalizing,
oAustenitizing is done at about 55°C above the A3 or Acm ;
othe steel is then removed from the furnace and cooled in air.
oThe faster cooling gives fine pearlite and provides higher strength.
 Spheroidizing—Improving Machinability
 Steels that contain a large concentration of Fe3C have poor machining
characteristics.
o It is possible to transform the morphology of Fe3C using Spheroidizing.
 During the Spheroidizing treatment, which requires several hours at about
30°C below the A1, the Fe3C phase morphology changes into large, spherical
particles in order to reduce boundary area.
 The microstructure, known as spheroidite, has a continuous matrix of soft,
machinable ferrite (Figure 13-5).
o After machining, the steel is given a more
sophisticated heat treatment to produce the
required properties.
 As noted before, alloying elements such as Pb
and S are also added to improve machinability
of steels, and lead-free “green steels” that Figure 13-5 The microstructure of
have very good machinability have been spheroidite with Fe3C particles
developed. dispersed in a ferrite matrix (×850).
[From ASM Hand-book, Vol. 7, (1972),
ASM International, Materials Park, OH
44073-0002.
Example 13-2 Determination of Heat-Treating Temperatures
 Recommend temperatures for the process annealing, annealing, normalizing, and
Spheroidizing of 1020, 1077, and 10120 steels.
solution
From Figure 13-1, we find the critical A1 , A3 , or Acm , temperatures for each steel. We
can then specify the heat treatment based on these temperatures.
 Heat Treatment
Time Temperature Transformation (TTT) Diagram:
 TTT diagram is a plot of temperature versus the logarithm of time for a
steel alloy of definite composition.
 It is used to determine when
transformations begin and
end for an isothermal heat
treatment of a previously
austenitized alloy.

 TTT diagram indicates when

a specific transformation
starts and ends and it also
shows what percentage of
transformation of austenite at
a particular temperature is
51
achieved.
 Heat Treatment
Time Temperature Transformation (TTT) Diagram:
 Depending on the type of heat treatment, time and temperature, final
microstructure of the steel, or any Iron carbon will be changed and so does
the properties.

Martensite
T Martensite
Strength

Ductility
Bainite
Fine Pearlite
Coarse Pearlite
Spheroidite
General Trends

52
 Heat Treatment Unit 5

Time Temperature Transformation (TTT) Diagram:

Iron-carbon alloy
with Eutectoid
(0.8 % C)
composition.

 A: Austenite
 P: Pearlite
 B: Bainite
 M: Martensite
 Time Temperature Transformation (TTT) Diagram:
Example 1:
c11f23
Iron-carbon
 alloy with
eutectoid composition.

 Specify the nature of the final

microstructure (% bainite,
martensite, pearlite etc) for the Bainite,
alloy that is subjected to the
100%
following time–temperature
treatments:

 Alloy begins at 760˚C and has

been held long enough to
achieve a complete and
homogeneous austenitic
structure.

 Treatment (a)
 Rapidly cool to 350 ˚C
 Hold for 104 seconds
 Quench to room temperature
 Time Temperature Transformation (TTT) Diagram:
Example 2:
c11f23
 Iron-carbon alloy with
eutectoid composition.

 Specify the nature of the final

microstructure (% bainite,
martensite, pearlite etc) for the
alloy that is subjected to the
following time–temperature
treatments:
Austenite,
 Alloy begins at 760˚C and has 100%
been held long enough to
achieve a complete and
homogeneous austenitic
structure.

 Treatment (b) Martensite,

 Rapidly cool to 250 ˚C 100%
 Hold for 100 seconds
 Quench to room temperature
 Time Temperature Transformation (TTT) Diagram:
 Example 3:

c11f23
Iron-carbon alloy with eutectoid

Austenite,
100%
composition. Almost 50% Pearlite,
50% Austenite
 Specify the nature of the final
microstructure (% bainite,
martensite, pearlite etc) for the
alloy that is subjected to the
following time–temperature
treatments: Bainite, 50%
 Alloy begins at 760˚C and has
been held long enough to achieve
a complete & homogeneous
austenitic structure.

 Treatment (c)
 Rapidly cool to 650˚C Final:
 Hold for 20 seconds 50% Bainite,
50% Pearlite
 Rapidly cool to 400˚C
 Hold for 103 seconds
 Quench to room temperature
 Heat Treatment
 Heat treating is a group of industrial and metalworking processes used
to alter the physical, and sometimes chemical, properties of a material.
The most common application is metallurgical.

 Heat treatment involves the use of heating or chilling, normally to

extreme temperatures, to achieve a desired result such as hardening or
softening of a material.

Heat treatment techniques include:

 Annealing, 
 Case hardening,
 Precipitation strengthening,
 Tempering, and 
 Quenching.
57
 Heat Treatment
Annealing: Annealing
 Annealing involves heating the material to a predetermined temperature
and hold the material at the temperature and cool the material to the room
temperature slowly. The process involves:

1) Heating of the material at the

elevated or predetermined
temperature
2) Holding the material (Soaking) at
the temperature for longer time.
3) Very slowly cooling the material
to the room temperature.
58
 Heat Treatment
Annealing: Annealing
 The various purpose of these heat treatments is to:

1) Relieve Internal stresses developed during solidification,

machining, forging, rolling or welding,
2) Improve or restore ductility and toughness,
3) Enhance Machinability,
4) Eliminate chemical non-uniformity,
5) Refrain grain size, &
6) Reduce the gaseous contents in steel.

59
 Heat Treatment
Annealing: Process Annealing
 In this treatment, steal (or any material) is heated to a temperature
below the lower critical temperature, and is held at this temperature for
sufficient time and then cooled.

 Cooling rate is of little

importance as the process is
being done at sub critical
temperatures.

 The purpose of this

treatment is to reduce
hardness and to increase
ductility of cold-worked steel
so that further working may
be carried easily.
60
 Heat Treatment
Annealing: Process Annealing
 This process is extensively used in the treatment of sheets and wires.

 Parts which are fabricated

by cold forming such as
stamping, extrusion, upsetting
and drawing are frequently
given this treatment as an
intermediate step.

 Scaling or oxidation can be

prevented or minimized by
this process specially if
annealed at lower
temperatures or in non-
oxidizing areas.
61
 Heat Treatment
Annealing: Stress Relieving
 As the name suggests, this process is employed to relieve internal
stresses. No microstructural changes occur during the process.

 Internal stresses are those stresses which can exist within a body in the
absence of external forces. These are also known as residual stresses are
locked-in stresses.

 These stresses are developed in operations like:

Solidification of castings, welding, machining, grinding, shot peening,

surface hammering, cold working, case hardening, electroplated coatings,
precipitation and phase transformation.

62
 Heat Treatment
Annealing: Stress Relieving
 These internal stresses under certain conditions can have adverse effects:
example: Steels with residual stresses under corrosive environment fail with stress
corrosion cracking.

These stresses also enhance the tendency

of steels towards warpage and dimensional
instability.

 Fatigue strength is reduced considerably

when residual tensile stresses are present
in steel.

 The problems associated with internal

stresses are more difficult in brittle
materials than in ductile materials.
63
Stress – Corrosion Cracking
 Heat Treatment
Annealing: Stress Relieving
 The process of stress relieving consists of heating materials uniformly to a
temperature below the lower critical temperature, holding at this temperature for
sufficient time, followed by uniform cooling.
 Uniform cooling is of utmost
importance as non-uniform cooling
will itself result in the development of
internal stresses. Thus the very
purpose of stress relieving will be lost.
 Plain carbon steels and low alloy
steels generally temperature is limited
to 600 oC. Higher temperature is used
for high alloy steels.
 The extent of the stresses relieved
depend upon the temperature employed
and holding time. 64
Stress – Corrosion Cracking
 Heat Treatment Unit 5

Annealing: Normalizing
 Normalizing is similar to full annealing, except steel is generally cooled
in still air.
 The normalizing consists of
heating steel to about 40-55 oC
above critical temperature
(Ac3 or Accm), and holding for
proper item and then cooling
in still air or slightly agitated
air to room temperature.

 In some special cases,

cooling rates can be controlled
by either changing air
temperature or air volume.
65
 Heat Treatment
Annealing: Normalizing
 After normalizing, the resultant micro-structure should be pearlitic.

 Since the temperature involved

in this process is more than that
for annealing , the homogeneity
of austenite increases and it
results in better dispersion of
ferrite and Cementite in the final
structure.
 Results in better dispersion of
ferrite and Cementite in the final
structure.
 The grain size is finer in normalized structure than in annealed structure.

66
 Heat Treatment Unit 5

Annealing: Normalizing
 Normalized treatment is frequently applied to steel in order to achieve
any one or more of the objectives, namely:

 To refine the grain structure,

 To obtain uniform structure,
 To decrease residual stresses,
 To improve Machinability.

67
 Heat Treatment
Hardening:
 Hardening and Hardness are two very different things. One is a process
of heat treatment and other is a extrinsic property of a material.

 Hardening is a heat treatment

process in which steel is rapidly cooled
from austenitising temperature. As a
result of hardening, the hardness and
wear resistance of steel are improved.

 Hardening treatment generally

consists of heating to hardening
temperature, holding at that
temperature, followed by rapid cooling
such as quenching in oil or water or salt
baths.
68
 Heat Treatment Unit 5

Hardening:
 The high hardness developed by this process is due to the phase
transformation accompanying rapid cooling. Rapid cooling results in the
transformation of austenite at considerably low temperature into non-
equilibrium products.
 The hardening temperature depends on chemical composition. For plain
carbon steels, it depends on the carbon content alone. Hypoeutectoid steels
are heated to about 30 – 50 oC above the upper critical temperature, whereas
eutectoid and hyper eutectoid steels are heated to about 30 – 50 oC above
lower critical temperature.

 Ferrite and pearlite transform to austenite at hardening temperature for

hypoectectoid steel. This austenite transforms to martensite on rapid
quenching from hardening temperature. The presence of martensite
accounts for high hardness of quenched steel.
69
 Heat Treatment
Hardening:
 Hardening is applied to cutting tools and machine parts where high hardness and
wear resistance are important.
 The Process Variables:

Hardening Temperature: The steel should be heat treated to optimum austenitising

temperature. A lower temperature results lower hardness due to incomplete
transformation t austenite. If this temperature is too high will also results lower
hardness due to a coarse grained structure.

Soaking Time: Soaking time at hardening temperature should be long enough to

transform homogenous austenite structure. Soaking time increases with increase in
section thickness and the amount of alloying element.

Delay in quenching: After soaking, the steel is immediately quenched. Delay in

quenching may reduce hardness due to partial transformation of austenite.

Type of quenching medium also has a profound effect, which will be discussed briefly. 70
 Heat Treatment Unit 5

Hardening:
 The main purpose of hardening tool steel is to develop high hardness.
This enables tool steel to cut other metals. High hardness developed by
this process also improves wear resistance. Gears, shafts and bearings.
Tensile strength and yield strength are improved considerably y hardening
structural steels.

 Because of rapid cooling, high

internal stresses are developed in
the hardened steel. Hence these
steels are generally brittle.
Hardening in general is followed
by another treatment known as
tempering which reduces internal
stresses and makes the hardened
steel relatively stable,
71
 Heat Treatment Unit 5

Tempering:
 Hardened steels are so brittle that even a small impact will cause
fracture. Toughness of such a steel can be improved by tempering.
However there is small reduction in strength and hardness.

 Tempering is a sub-critical heat

treatment process used to improve
the toughness of hardened steel.

 Tempering consists of reheating

of hardened steel to a temperature
below Lower critical temperature
and is held for a period of time, and
then slowly cooled in air to room
temperature.
72
 Heat Treatment
Tempering:
 At tempering temperature, carbon atoms diffuses out and form fine
cementite and softer ferrite structure left behind. Thus the structure of
tempered steel consists of ferrite and fine cementite.

Thus tempering allows to precipitate

carbon as very fine carbide and allow the
microstructure to return to BCC

 The temperatures are related to the

function of the parts. Cutting tools are
tempered between 230 – 300 oC. If greater
ductility and toughness are desired as in case
of shafts and high strength bolts, the steel is
tempered in the range of 300 – 600 oC.
73
 Heat Treatment
Tempering:
 Tempering temperatures are usually identified by the colour. Tempering
temperatures for tools and shafts along with temper colors.

 Depending on temperatures, tempering processes can be classified as:

1) Low- temperature tempering

(150 – 250 oC),

2) Medium – temperature
tempering (350 – 450 oC),

3) High – temperature tempering

(500 – 650 oC).

74
 Heat Treatment
Tempering:
 Tempering temperatures are usually identified by the colour. Tempering
temperatures for tools and shafts along with temper colors.

75
 Heat Treatment
Hardenability:
 The responsibility of a steel to a given hardening treatment is indicated by
the property known as Hardenability.

 It is an index of the depth to which

the martensite can be formed in a
given steel as a result of a given
hardening treatment.

 The term Hardenability is used to

measure the depth of hardness
achieved i.e. martensite introduced
into the steel section by quenching
the steel from austenite state.
 Greater the depth of hardness below the surface, higher will be the
Hardenability of steel. 76
 Heat Treatment
Hardenability:
 Hardenability of steel depends on composition of steel, method of
quenching and section of steel.
 The addition of alloying elements
in steel decreases the critical cooling
rate. Thus the Hardenability of alloy
steels is more than that of the carbon
steels.

 While in the oil quenching, the

cooling rates are lower than water
quenching and thus the hardness
values are lower in case of oil
quenched steels.
 The larger section shows lower Hardenability because of their increase
mass results in a lower overall rate of cooling. 77
 Heat Treatment
Hardenability: Jominy End Quench Test
 The most simple and convenient method of determining the Hardenability
is the Jominy End
Quench Test.

 The Jominy test involves heating a standard test piece of diameter 25 mm

and length 100 mm to the austenite state, fixing it to a frame in a vertical
78
position and then quenching the lower end by means of a jet of water.
 Heat Treatment
Hardenability: Jominy End Quench Test
 The mode of quenching results in different rate of cooling along the
length of the test piece.

 After a quenching, a flat of 0.38

mm deep is ground along one side of
the test price, and hardness
measurements are made along the
length of the test piece.

 A bar of steel having good

Hardenability shows higher hardness
readings for greater distance from the
quenched end.

79
 Heat Treatment
Quenching:
 Quenching is a process of rapid cooling of materials from high
temperature to room temperature or even lower. In steels quenching
results in transformation of austenite to martensite (a non-equilibrium
constituent).

 During cooling, heat must be extracted at

a very fast rate from the steel piece. This is
possible only when a steel piece is allowed
to come in contact with some medium which
can absorb heat from the steel piece with in a
short period.

 Under ideal conditions, all the heat

absorbed by the medium should be rejected
to the surroundings immediately.
80
 Heat Treatment Unit 5

Quenching:
 The removal of heat during quenching is complex in the sense that heat
is removed in three stages.

1) Vapor Blanket,

2) Nucleate Boiling,

3) Convection.

81
 Heat Treatment
Quenching:
Vapor Blanket (stage 1)
As soon as the work-piece comes into contact with a liquid coolant
(quenchant), the surrounding quenchant layer is instantaneously heated up
to the boiling point of the quenchant and gets vaporized due to the high
temperature of the work- piece.
 This acts as an insulator, preventing
the quenching oil from contacting the
metal surface. As a consequence, the rate
of cooling during this stage is slow.

 At this stage the work piece is cooled

only by conduction and radiation
through the vapor film.

 Only the surface is cooled

considerably prior to the formation of
vapor envelop. 82
 Heat Treatment
Quenching:
Nucleate Boiling (stage 2)
This second stage is also called as transport cooling stage or liquid
boiling stage. The temperature of the work-piece comes down, through
very slowly and the vapor blanket is no longer stable and collapses.
 Metal surface comes into contact with the liquid/
quenchant. Violent boiling quickly removes heat
from the quenched component while forming
bubbles and being pushed away, resulting in the
cooler fluid coming into contact with the work
piece.

This happens till the temperature of the work piece

comes down to the boiling point of the liquid.

 Maximum cooling rate is achieved during this

stage. 83
 Heat Treatment
Quenching:
Convection (stage 3)

The third stage is called as the liquid cooling stage or the convection stage.

 I starts when the temperature of the

surface becomes equal to the boiling
point of the quenchant.

 Cooling at this stage takes place via

conduction and convection processes.

 The rate of cooling is the slowest at

this stage.

84
 Heat Treatment
Quenching: Effect of Quenching Medium
 Quenching medium has the profound effect on the final phase of the
material. Quenching medium is directly related to the rate of the cooling
of the material.

 Some of the widely employed quenching media are water, aqueous

solutions, oils (mineral, vegetable and even animal oils), molten salts and
air.

85
 Heat Treatment
Quenching: Effect of Quenching Medium (Water)
 Water has maximum cooling rate
amongst all common quenchants
except few aqueous solutions.

 It is very cheap and easily disposed

off compared to other quenchants.

 Hence water is used for carbon

steels, alloy steels and non-ferrous
alloys.

The layer if scale formed on the

surface during heating is also broken
by water quenching, thus eliminating
an additional process of surface
cooling. 86
 Heat Treatment
Quenching: Effect of Quenching Medium (OIL)
 Most of the Oils used as quenchants
are mineral oils. These are in general
paraffin based and do not possess any
fatty oils.

 Quenching in oil provides slower

cooling rates as compared to those
achieved by water quenching.

 The slower cooling rate reduces the

possibility of hardening defects.

 The temperature difference between

core and the case of work piece is less
for oil quenching than for water
quenching. 87
 Heat Treatment
Quenching: Effect of Quenching Medium (AIR)
 Many alloy steels are capable of
getting hardened by cooling either in still
air or in a blast of air.

 Such steels are popularly known as air

hardening steels.

 These steels are almost free from

distortion problem. However, the
problem of oxidation during cooling
(quenching) may be encountered in
practice. Many grades of tool steels are
subjected to air hardening.

 Cooling rates can be improved by

mixing air and water. 88
 Heat Treatment
Quenching: Effect of Quenching Medium :
Just the drastic water quench generates a fully martensite structure.

 Although quenched in oil the austensite converts into suitably fine pearlite.

 Accurate pearlite also results if the austenised eutectoid steel is air-cooled.

 Though, if allowed to cool in furnace coarse pearlite is appearance.

Cooling Structure UTS Y. S. Hardness Elongation % (50

Media (N/mm2) (N/mm2) (Rc) mm g. L)

Water Martensite 1700 - 65 Low

Oil Troostite 1100 550 35 5

Air Fine pearlite 850 270 25 8

Furnace Coarse pearlite 520 140 15 12

89
 Heat Treatment
Quenching: Effect of Quenching Medium

Coarse Pearlite

- Smaller T:
colonies are
larger

Fine Pearlite

- Larger T:
colonies are
smaller

   Figure: Microstructure resulting

from Different Cooling Rates
Applied to Austenitized Samples of
90
Eutectoid Steel
 Heat Treatment Unit 5
Surface Hardening:
 In many situations hard and wear resistance surface is required with the
tough core. Because of tough core the components can withstand impact
load. The typical applications requiring these conditions include gear
teeth, cams shafts, bearings, crank pins, clutch plate, tools and dies.

 The combination of the these properties can be achieved by the

following methods:

 1. Hardening and tempering the surface layers (surface hardening)

(i) Flame Hardening (ii) Induction Hardening

 2. Changing the composition at surface layers (chemical heat

treatment or case hardening)
(i) Carburising (ii) Nitriding (iii) Carburising and Cyaniding
91
 Heat Treatment Unit 5
Surface Hardening: Flame Hardening
 The flame hardening involves heating the surface of a steel to a
temperature above upper critical point (850 oC) with a oxyacetylene flame
and then immediately quenched the surface with cold water.

 Heating transforms the structure of surface layers to austenite, and the

quenching changes it to martensite.

92
 Heat Treatment
Surface Hardening: Flame Hardening
 The surface layers are hardened to about 50 – 60 HRC. It is less expensive
and can be easily adopted for large and complex shapes.

Flame hardened parts must be tempered after hardening. The tempering

temperature depends on the alloy composition and desired hardness.

 The flame hardening methods are suitable for the steels with carbon
93
contents ranging from 0.40 to 0.95% and low alloy steels.
 Heat Treatment Unit 5
Surface Hardening: Induction Hardening
 Induction hardening involves placing the steel components within a coil
through which high frequency current is passed. The current in the coil
induce eddy current in the surface layers, and heat the surface layers uotp
austenite state.

 Then the surface is immediately quenched with the cold water to

transfer the austenite to martensite. The principle of induction hardening
is:

94
 Heat Treatment
Surface Hardening: Induction Hardening
 Advantages of induction hardening over flame hardening is its speed
and ability to harden small parts; but it is expensive. Like flame
hardening, it is suitable for medium carbon and low alloy steels.

Typical applications for induction hardening are crank shafts, cam

shafts, connecting rods, gears and cylinders.

95
 Heat Treatment Unit 5
Surface Hardening: Carburising
 Carburising is carried out on a steels containing carbon less than 0.2%.
It involves increasing the carbon contents on the surface layers upto 0.7 to
0.8%.
 In this process, the steel is heated in contact with carbonaceous material
from which it absorbs carbon. This method is mostly used for securing
hard and wear resistance surface with tough core carburising is used for
gears, cams, bearings and clutch plates.
2 CO  C + CO2

96
 Heat Treatment
Surface Hardening: Carburising
 The Following methods are used to diffuse carbon into
surface layers:
1) Pack (solid) Carburising,
2) Gas Carburising,
3) Liquid Carburising.

Liquid Carburising

97
Gas Carburising
 Heat Treatment
Surface Hardening: Nitriding
 Nitriding involves diffusion of nitrogen into the product to form nitrides.
The resulting nitride case can be harder than the carburized steel. This
process is used for alloy steels containing alloying elements (Aluminum,
Chromium and Molybdenum) which form stable nitrides.

 Nitriding consists if heating a component in a retort to a temperature of

about 500 to 600 oC. Through the retort the ammonia gas is allowed to
circulate. At this temperature the ammonia dissociates by the following
reaction.
2 NH3  2N + 3H2
 The atomic nitrogen diffuses into steel surface, and combines with the
alloying elements (Cr, Mo, W, V etc) to form hard nitrides. The depth to
which nitrides are formed in the steel depends on the temperature and the
time allowed for the reaction. After the nitriding the job is allowed to cool
slowly. Since there is no quenching involved, chances of cracking and
distortion of the component are less. 98
 Heat Treatment
Surface Hardening: Nitriding
 The depth of nitrided case ranges from 0.2 to 0.4 mm and no machining is
done after nitriding.

 Nitriding increase wear and corrosion resistance and fatigue strength of

the steel. Since nitriding is done at low temperature, it requires more time
than carburising, and also the capital cost if the plant is higher than
carburising.

99
 Heat Treatment
Surface Hardening: Cyaniding
 Similar to carbonitriding, cyaniding also involves the diffusion of carbon
and nitrogen into the surface of steel. It is also called liquid carbonitriding.
The components are heated to the temperature of about 800 – 900 oC in a
molten cyanide bath consisting of sodium cyanide, sodium carbonate and
sodium chloride.

 After allowing the components in the bath for about 15 – 20 minutes, they
are quenched in oil or water. Cyaniding is normally used for low-carbon
steels, and case depths are usually less than 0.25 mm.

 It produces hard and wear resistance surface on the steels. Because of

shorter time cycles, the process is widely used for the machine components
subjected to moderate wear and service loads.

 The process is particularly suitable for screws, small gears, nuts and bolts.
100
THE INDICATIVE CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF C45
STEELS
The chemical composition of this grade is indicated as
under:

Maximum percentage of Carbon (C) is 0.50 percent.

Maximum percentage of Manganese (Mn) is 0.9
percent and minimum is 0.5 percent.
Maximum percentage of Phosphorous (P) is 0.03
percent
Maximum percentage of Silicon (Si) is 0.04 percent.
Maximum percentage of Sulphur (S) is 0.035 percent.
Maximum percentage of Nickel (Ni) is 0.4 percent.
Maximum percentage of Chromium (Cr) is 0.4 percent

Figure: Stress-strain diagram of hardened, tempered and normalized steel C45