Aerial Photography & Photogrammetry

Lecture 3-1

Geometry of a Vertical
Aerial Photograph
d
Reading Chapters
“Elements of Photogrammetry with Applications in GIS”, by Förstner etl ,
2016.
Chapter Exercises LABORATORY
Material Sections
Page
page
exercises
Page

1 Introduction 1 23 83
2
Geometry of a Vertical
Aerial Photograph 27 43 83
Principles of Stereoscopic
3
Vision 44 83
Scale of a Vertical Aerial
4
Photograph 68 101
Horizontal Measurements -
5 Distance, Bearings and
Areas
86 127
Vertical Measurements
6 105 127
Acquisition of Aerial
7 Photography 131 154
OBJECTIVES
After a thorough understanding of this chapter, you will be able to:
1.Identify different types of aerial photographs
—whether they are vertical, high, or low
oblique, or horizontal—and sketch the
shapes of the ground area covered by each
type.
2.Give precise definitions for camera focal
length and angle of coverage and classify
narrow-, normal-, wide-, and super-wide-
angle lenses according to focal length and
angle of coverage.
 OBJECTIVES
After a thorough understanding of this chapter, you will be able to:
1.
2.
Identify different types of aerial photographs—whether they are vertical, high, or low oblique, or horizontal—and sketch the shapes of the ground area covered by each type.
Give precise definitions for camera focal length and angle of coverage and classify narrow-, normal-, wide-, and super-wide-angle lenses according to focal length and angle of coverage.

3.Identify on an aerial photograph or

sketch the fiducial marks, coordinate
axes, and the three different photo
centers on an “unintentionally tilted”
vertical aerial photograph.
4.State the difference between photo
distortion and photo displacement.
 OBJECTIVES
After a thorough understanding of this chapter, you will be able to:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Identify different types of aerial photographs—whether they are vertical, high, or low oblique, or horizontal—and sketch the shapes of the ground area covered by each type.
Give precise definitions for camera focal length and angle of coverage and classify narrow-, normal-, wide-, and super-wide-angle lenses according to focal length and angle of coverage.
Identify on an aerial photograph or sketch the fiducial marks, coordinate axes, and the three different photo centers on an “unintentionally tilted” vertical aerial photograph.
State the difference between photo distortion and photo displacement.

5. List the type of distortion or displacement that radiates

from the three photo centers and know how to remove or
avoid them.
6. List four other types of distortion or displacement.
7. Define ratioed and rectified prints and explain how each is
obtained.
8. Compute the unknown variable given the equation for
image displacement due to relief and any four of the five
variables involved.
9. State five inferences that can be made from the image
displacement equation for topography and solve problems
based on these inferences.
Chapter Two: Geometry of a Vertical Aerial Photograph

2.1 CLASSIFICATION OF PHOTOGRAPHS

2.1.1 Advantages of Vertical as Compared
2.1.2 Advantages of Oblique as Compared
2.2 FOCAL LENGTH AND ANGLE OF COVERAGE
2.2 The Coordinate Axes 31
2.3 THE THREE PHOTO CENTERS
2.3.1 Principal Point
2.3.2 Nadir
2.3.3 Isocenter
2.4 Distortion and Displacement
2.5.1 Lens Distortion
2.5.2 Tilt Displacement
2.5.3 Topographic Displacement
2.6 NUMERICAL EXAMPLES
2.7 Inferences Based on the Relief Displacement Equation 41
 Descriptive Geometry
• Gaspard Monge(1746-1818), the father of
descriptive geometry, developed a
graphical protocol which creates three-
dimensional virtual space on a two-
dimensional plane.

• Monge became a scientific and

mathematical aide to Napoleon during his
reign as general and emperor of France.

For more details see the lecture on

ME114 : COMPUTER AIDED ENGINEERING DRAWING II
http://me114.cankaya.edu.tr/course.php?page=Lecture%20Notes
Aerial Photo (Image) vs Map
Images Maps
1. Central/ 1. Orthogonal/
Perspective Orthographic
projection projection
2. non-uniform 2. uniform scale
scale 3. Symbols
3. actual features
Aerial Photo (Image) vs Map
Central Projection Orthogonal Projection
• Projection of features in • Each point is placed as if
an aerial photograph it is viewed from above
• Each point on a photo is • Also called a map plane
imaged after reflected
light passes through a
single point (lens)
• Causes features with a
height above a base
elevation to radiate
outward from the center
Perspective vs Orthogonal Projection

Central projection: aerial photo Orthogonal projection: map

Image from Remote Sensing Core Curriculum Introduction to Photo Interpretation and Photogrammetry by John Estes and Jeff Hemphill
Perspective vs Orthogonal Projection

Image / aerial photo Map

Perspective vs Orthogonal Projection

Perspective Projection Orthogonal Projection

Perspective vs Orthogonal Projection

Orthogonal Projection

Perspective Projection
Perspective vs Orthogonal Projection

Perspective Projection Orthogonal Projection

 1-
Classification/Types of
aerial photographs
AP
1- Classification of AP

A classification of aerial photographs and digital images.

1- Classification of AP

Terrestrial
Photograph
1- Classification of AP
True Vertical Photograph

http://imagewerx.us/your-exclusive-source-for-true-vertical-aerial-photography/
1- Classification of AP Oblique
1- Classification of AP
Tilted
Raw
1- Classification of AP
Tilted
Rectified
1- Classification of AP according to direction of exposure

1. Vertical photograph:
AP taken with the
optical axis of the
camera perpendicular to
the horizontal plane.

Ground features appear

in the photo in much the
same way as the map of
similar scale.
1- Classification of AP according to direction of exposure

2. Oblique photograph: AP taken with the camera

axis tilted intentionally between the horizontal and
vertical plane.
Two types:
a)Low oblique: The horizon does not show in
the picture and the optical axis is generally
less than 300 from the vertical.

b)High oblique: Horizon is seen in the AP and

optical axis has an angle of 600 with the
vertical.
1- Classification of AP according to direction of exposure

Vertical AP

Low
oblique AP High oblique AP
1- Classification of AP
according to Sensor & film emulation

1.Panchromatic (black and white) photography: is

useful in recording the visible light in the range of
350-750milimicron of the EMR. This film produces
‘normal’ picture i.e. dark object appears dark and
light object appears light.

2.Infrared (black and white) photography: The

infrared film is sensitive to visible light as well as
near infrared radiation (350-900 mm).

3.Color photography: This film also called true color

film registers all the colors that are visible to human
eyes (400-700mm).
1- Classification of AP
according to Sensor & film emulation

4. False color photography: Three layered film

is sensitive to green, red and near-infrared
radiation instead of usual blue, green and
red radiation…Used in differencing
manmade and natural object, healthy and
diseased tress, between deciduous and
evergreen trees.
5 Multiband or multispectral photography:
Photographs the same area simultaneously
with several films using various filters.
1- Classification of AP
according to Sensor & film emulation

panchromatic

true color
false-color infrared
With an airborne digital camera, images can be captured simultaneously in grayscale
(also called panchromatic), true color (RBG), and false-color infrared (CIR).
SOURCE: Fugro EarthData.
1- Classification of AP according to Scale

1.Very large scale>larger than 1:10,000

(for detailed studies e.g. logging
planning, damage survey).
2.Large scale> 1:10,000-1:20,000
3.Medium scale> 1:20,000-1:40,000
(e.g. for inventory and forest cover

4.
5.
mapping, plantation site selection)
Small scale>1:40,000-1:70,000
Very small scale>1:70,000-1:100,000 (for nationwide survey, reconnaissance survey)
1- Classification of AP according to Scale

1. Very large scale>larger than 1:10,000 (for detailed studies e.g. logging planning, damage survey).
2. Large scale> 1:10,000-1:20,000
3. Medium scale> 1:20,000-1:40,000 (e.g. for inventory and forest cover mapping, plantation site selection)

4.Small scale>1:40,000-1:70,000
5.Very small scale>1:70,000-
1:100,000 (for nationwide survey,
reconnaissance survey)
1- Classification of AP according to focal length ( f )

1.Narrow-angle (f = 12 inches)
2.Normal-angle (f = 8.25 inches)
3. Wide-angle (f = 6 inches)
4. Super-wide-angle (f = 3.5 inches)

Figure 2.4. Relationship between focal length and the angle of coverage. As the focal
length increases, the angle of coverage decreases.
 Thank you

Any Questions ?
END
of Lecture
Appendix L3-A r
Negative film PP

d
perspective center
Lens

Photo positive

d
H
r

Ground PP nadir point

D R
Appendix L3-A We may write two expressions for distance D in this
figure, in terms of radial image distances

perspective center rB f H  rB
 D
Δr D H f
rB rT f r  ( H  h )
 D T
rT D H h f
and set the two expressions
for D equal to each other,

nadir point
Appendix L3-A

H  rB rT  ( H  h)

f f
 H  rT  h  rT  H  rB  0
 H  ( rT  rB )  h  rT

hr
 r  d 
H
Appendix L3-B

Some Key Terms in Aerial

Photography
(compiled by Hugh Millward from
various sources)
• Air-base (AB) (a.k.a. Camera Base): Ground distance between centers (PPs) of
adjacent photos along a flight line.
• Angle of Coverage: the angle of the cone of rays passing the front of a camera
lens. Normal angle = 60° - 75°, Wide-angle = over 75°
• Average Photo-base (PB): For adjacent air photos, the average of the distance
between the PP and CPP on each photo
• Camera-base (CB) (a.k.a. Air-base): Ground distance between centres (PPs) of
adjacent photos along a flight line
• Conjugate Principal Point (CPP) (a.k.a. Corresponding P.P.): The location of a
Principal Point from one photo on an adjacent photo along the flight line
• Control Point: A reference point precisely located on both the ground and the
photo (ground control point) on both a map and the photo (map control point), or
on two adjacent photos (photo control point)
• Controlled Mosaic: A series of overlapping air photos that have been rectified and
aligned with ground control points, to allow planimetrically-correct distance
measurements
• Crab: Rotation of the camera (and aircraft) relative to the flightline
• Drift: Lateral shift of the aircraft from the planned flightline
• Eye-base (EB): Interpupillary distance, normally 6.4 (± 0.4) cm.
• Fiducial Marks: Marks built into aerial cameras which appear on the sides or in
the corners of the photo (or both), and which are used to determine the precise
location of the principal point.
• Focal length: Distance from the optical centre of the lens to the focal plane,
when the camera is focussed at infinity.
• Forward Overlap: (a.k.a. Endlap): The amount of overlap between successive
photos in a flight line to allow for stereo viewing (usually 60 – 70%)
• High Oblique photo: An air photo which shows the horizon line (usually having
high vertical tilt, of 60° or more)
• Isocentre: The point on an air photo which lies halfway between the Principal
Point and the Nadir (Tilt-displacement radiates from this)
• Low Oblique Photo: An air photo tilted from the vertical, but not enough for the
horizon to be visible (usually having vertical tilt of 3°- 60°)
• Mosaic: A series of overlapping air photos
• Nadir: That point on the ground vertically beneath the camera lens (or aircraft),
or the point on the photo which corresponds to it. (Topographic Displacement
radiates from this)
• Orthophoto: A vertical air photo which has been rectified to remove parallax
• Parallax: The apparent displacement of the position of an object, with respect
to a reference point, caused by a shift in the point of observation.
• Photo-base (PB): On a single air photo, the distance between the photo's
principal point and the CPP of an adjacent photo (see Average PB)
• Principal Point (PP): The geometric centre of an aerial photograph, located at the
intersection of lines drawn between the fiducial marks (i.e., at the intersection of the x and
y axes). (Lens distortion radiates from this)
• Radial Line Triangulation (RLT): The production of planimetrically-correct (i.e. uniform
scale) maps from two or more adjacent vertical air photos, using the techniques of
resection and intersection.
• Rectification: The process of converting a vertical air photo to remove displacements
caused by tilt or topography (i.e., to remove parallax).
• Sidelap (a.k.a. Lateral overlap): The amount of overlap between air photos in adjacent
flight lines (usually 20 – 30%)
• Stereogram: A stereopair or stereo-triplet mounted for proper stereovision (conjugate
points 5.7±0.3 cm apart)
• Tilt: Rotation of the camera away from the vertical, about the x- or y-axis
• Tilt Displacement: Changes in position caused by scale variations related to the tilt of the
camera, about either the x-or y-axis
• Topographic Displacement (a.k.a. Relief Displacement, Radial Displacement, or Planimetric
Shift due to Elevation): Changes in position caused by scale variations related to differences
in elevation or height.
• Uncontrolled Mosaic: A series of overlapping air photos which have not been aligned to
ground control points
• Vertical Air Photo: An air photo with less than 3° of vertical tilt
• X-axis: For a single photo, the line through the photo showing direction of flight at the
centre of the photo (i.e., nose-to-tail axis)
• Y-axis: the line at right-angles to the x-axis (i.e., wingtip-to-wingtip axis)
Appendix 3-1
How is the Principal Point determined from aerial photographs ?
Principal Point is determined by the photographs Fiducial Marks

What aspects of photographic geometry cause differences between Nadir and the Principal
Point?
-Topographic displacement affects often increase from Nadir
-Tilt displacement affects increase away from the Isocenter of the photograph

Why are most aerial photographs taken from a tilted angle opposed to a vertical position?

What two aspects of aerial photography are used to define the scale of a photograph, and
how are they calculated?
Scale is determined by the
1- focal length of a lens/
2- photograph height.
Focal Length = 4cm , Flying Height = 100000cm , 4/100000 = Scale 1/25,000
Appendix 3-3
Crab
Opposite line of photographs
are not parallel to flight line is
known as crab of photograph.

Drift
When aircraft is swayed away
from its preplanned flight line
then it is known as drift.