Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering

Chapter 4: MICROWAVE TUBES

Mentor: Mr. K NISHANTH RAO [PhD]

Dept. of ECE
Pre-requisites for Microwave Tubes Topic :

* Transmission media
* Wave guide theory and modes
• Excitation of modes in WGs through probe and loop coupling
* Cavity Resonators
* Vacuum Tube fundamentals
 Cavity Resonators

A cavity resonator, is one in which the

waves exist in a hollow space inside the
device. Acoustic cavity resonators in which
sound is produced by air vibrating in a
cavity with one opening, are known as
Helmholtz resonators.
The cavity has interior surfaces
which reflect a wave of a specific
frequency. When a wave that is
resonant with the cavity enters, it
bounces back and forth within the
cavity, with low loss. As more wave
energy enters the cavity, it combines
with and reinforces the standing
wave, increasing its intensity

An illustration of the electric and

magnetic field of one of the possible
modes in a cavity resonator.
A standing wave in a rectangular cavity resonator.
 Rectangular cavity resonators

Starting from a rectangular waveguide of cross section ‘a’ by ‘b’ metres, we can
add short circuit walls in the y-z planes, along the direction of propagation.
This gives a rectangular box whose resonant frequency is given by ‘f’

where (f* λ) = c = 3*10^8, and

1/[λ]^2 = {m/2a}^2 + {n/2b}^2 + {p/2d}^2

Here, there are m half wavelength loops along x, n half wavelength loops along y,
and p half wavelength loops along d. It is possible for just one only of the loop
numbers m, n, and p to take the value zero.

The spacings of the walls are d along z, b along y, and a along x. We see
there are many modes of a rectangular cavity. d
a
b
 Conventional Vacuum Tube

The efficiency of conventional tubes is largely independent of frequency up to a

certain limit. When frequency increases beyond that limit, several factors combine to
rapidly decrease tube efficiency.
Tubes that are efficient in the microwave range usually operate on the theory of
VELOCITY MODULATION, a concept that avoids the problems encountered in
conventional tubes.
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 Frequency Limitations of Conventional Tubes

•Three characteristics of ordinary vacuum tubes become increasingly important

as frequency rises.
•These characteristics are interelectrode capacitance, lead inductance, and
electron transit time.
•The INTERELECTRODE CAPACITANCES in a vacuum tube, at low or
medium radio frequencies, produce capacitive reactances that are so large that
no serious effects upon tube operation are noticeable. However, as the
frequency increases, the reactances become small enough to materially affect
the performance of a circuit
•For extremely high-frequency applications (above 1 GHz), the interelectrode
capacitances and transit-time delays of standard electron tube construction
become prohibitive.
•Transit time effects
•GBW product

8
For example,
•1-picofarad capacitor has a reactance of 159,000
ohms at 1 megahertz. If this capacitor was the
interelectrode capacitance between the grid and
plate of a tube, and the rf voltage between these
electrodes was 500 volts, then 3.15 milliamperes of
current would flow through the interelectrode
capacitance. Current flow in this small amount
would not seriously affect circuit performance.
•On the other hand, at a frequency of 100
megahertz the reactance would decrease to
approximately 1,590 ohms and, with the same
voltage applied, current would increase to 315
milliamperes

9
 Microwave tubes
• A high-vacuum tube designed for operation in the
frequency region from approximately 3000 to 300,000
MHz.
• Two considerations distinguish a microwave tube from
vacuum tubes used at lower frequencies:
--- the dimensions of the tube structure in relation to the
wavelength of the signal that it generates or amplifies, and
the time during which the electrons interact with the
microwave field.

10
 Microwave tubes
• In the microwave region wavelengths are in the order of
centimeters; resonant circuits are in the forms of
transmission lines that extend a quarter of a wavelength from
the active region of the microwave tube.
• With such short circuit dimensions the internal tube structure
constitutes an appreciable portion of the circuit. For these
reasons a microwave tube is made to form part of the
resonant circuit.
• Leads from electrodes to external connections are short, and
electrodes are parts of surfaces extending through the
envelope directly to the external circuit that is often a
coaxial transmission line or cavity

11
• At microwaves the period of signal is in the range of 0.001-
1 nanosecond. Only if transit time is less than a quarter of
the signal period do significant numbers of electrons
exchange appreciable energy with the signal field.
• Transit time is reduced in several ways. Electrodes are
closely spaced and made planar in configuration, and high
interelectrode voltages are used.
• Tubes designed by the foregoing principles are effective for
wavelengths from a few meters to a few centimeters. At
shorter wavelengths different principles are necessary.
• To obtain greater exchange of energy between the electron
beam and the electromagnetic field several alternative
designs have proved practical.
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• Instead of collecting the electron beam at a plate formed by
the opposite side of the resonant circuit, the beam is allowed
to pass into a field-free region before reacting further with an
external circuit.
• The electron cloud can be deflected by a strong static
magnetic field so as to revolve and thereby react several
times with the signal field before reaching the plate.
( Klystron; Magnetron.)
• Instead of producing the field in one or several resonant
circuits, the field can be supported by a distributed structure
along which it moves at a velocity comparable to the velocity
of electrons in the beam.
• The electron beam is then directed close to this structure so
that beam and field interact over an extended interval of time.
(Traveling-wave tube.)
13
However, there seems to be no end to the
creative ways in which tubes may be
constructed,

14
 MW TUBES
• Klystron Amplifier
• Klystron Oscillator
• Magnetron Oscillator
• Cross Field Amplifier (CFA)
• TWT Amplifier
• Backward Wave Oscillator (BWO)

15
Applications of high power devices at millimeter wave frequency
range

Radar (long-range and high resolution) Communication (high

information density) Electronic warfare
Directed energy weaponry Material
processing Waste remediation
Ozone generation
Atmospheric purification of admixtures like freons that destroy ozone
layer

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 Microwave Tubes

Linear Beam Devices Cross Field Devices

Magnetron CFA

Resonant slow-wave structure (non-resonant)

Cavity

Klystron Forward Wave Backward Wave

Amplifier
Helix TWT BWA BWO

Reflex
Klystron
Coupled Cavity
TWT

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 MICROWAVE SOURCES

High Power Microwave Tubes

1.Cross Field Devices : Orthogonal Electric and Magnetic
fields:- Magnetron, CFA -- As Low power amplifiers in
coherent MTI, pulse compression radar, Pulse Doppler
2.Linear Beam Devices: Continuous electron beam in the
interaction region :- Klystron, TWT.
RF conversion efficiency = ratio of RF power output
available to the dc power input
RF conversion efficiency of RF Power sources : 10% to
60%
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Two of the researchers instrumental in the initial development of the
IOT, a pair of brothers named Sigurd and Russell Varian
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Inductive Output Tube (IOT)
• It was discovered in 1939 that a toroidal cavity made of
conductive material called a cavity resonator surrounding an
electron beam of oscillating intensity could extract power
from the beam without actually intercepting the beam itself.

• The oscillating electric and magnetic fields associated with

the beam "echoed" inside the cavity, in a manner similar to
the sounds of traveling automobiles echoing in a roadside
canyon, allowing radio-frequency energy to be transferred
from the beam to a waveguide or coaxial cable connected to
the resonator with a coupling loop.

20
This input resonator acted as a pair of inductive grids to alternately "bunch"
and release packets of electrons down the drift space of the tube, so the electron
beam would be composed of electrons traveling at different velocities. This
"velocity modulation" of the beam translated into the same sort of amplitude
variation at the output resonator, where energy was extracted from the beam.
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Two Cavity Klystron Amplifier

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Functions in Second
Cavity
The bunches arrives
at intervals
corresponding to the
frequency 1st cavity
oscillates

The magnetic field

produced in the
cavity is linked with a
cable and thus
initiates amplified
output signal
 Why Amplified?

• The majority electrons are bunched and these are

decelerated and a few are accelerated
• The result is almost all the kinetic energy is converted into
electromagnetic energy
 Multi Cavity Klytron
Widely used because of large amplification
Super power Klystron used at the Canberra Deep
Space Communications Complex Multi-cavity Klystron
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Klystron Amplifiers Applications
The klystron amplifiers applications include the following.

The applications of klystron amplifiers involve in satellite, high-energy

physics, wideband high-power communication, radar, medical, particle
accelerators, etc.
Klystron amplifiers can produce far superior outputs of microwave power
compare with Gunn diodes which are named as solid-state microwave
devices.
Generally, these amplifiers are used where the ranges of outputs will be 50
MW as well as 50 kW at 2856 MHz. So they are used from hundreds of MHz
to hundreds of GHz
The klystron in the radars gives the output power in the range of 1 MW at
2380 Mhz
As the electron in between grids experiences a force due to the RF electric field
V1 << V0
Applegate diagram
Electrons emitted from the heated cathode travel through the cavity grids toward
the repeller plate, then are repelled and returned back the way they came (hence
the name reflex) through the cavity grids. Self-sustaining oscillations would
develop in this tube, the frequency of which could be changed by adjusting the
repeller voltage. Hence, this tube operated as a voltage-controlled oscillator.

32
Reflex Klystron

33
As a voltage-controlled oscillator, reflex klystron tubes served commonly as "local
oscillators" for radar equipment and microwave receivers
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Initially developed as low-power devices whose output required
further amplification for radio transmitter use, reflex klystron design
was refined to the point where the tubes could serve as power
devices in their own right.

•Reflex klystrons have since been superseded by semiconductor

devices in the application of local oscillators, but amplification
klystrons continue to find use in high-power, high-frequency radio
transmitters and in scientific research applications.

•Reflex oscillators are used as signal sources from 3 to 200 GHz.

They are also used as the transmitter tubes in line-of-sight radio relay
systems and in low-power radars

35
The optimum transit time is represented as
T=n+3/4 where n is an integer
Modes and o/p characteristics

 The output frequency and the output power vary with the change in repeller
voltage for different modes are shown in figure. These modes are called mode
curves.
 The oscillation frequency is determined by the frequency of resonance of the
output cavity, This is called as electronics tuning range of reflex klystron
O/P Characteristics:
 The adjustment of repeller and anode voltage is in such a way that the bunch
appears exactly at any of the +ve maximum voltage of the RF signal, which is
necessary for reflex klystron to undergo oscillations.
 The oscillations cab be achieved only for some combination of anode and
repeller voltages.
 The voltage or output characteristics os reflex klystron are shown in the below
figure
Power output and efficiency:
The energy transformed by the electron is = -eV1J1(x’) Sina ‘
Let N electrons are emitted from the cathode per second:
so that the direct current from the cathode will be I0 = Ne
Power output = - N eV1J1(x’) Sina '
= - I0 eV1J1(x’) Sina '
Power supplied by d.c. potential source
P0 = I0V0

Efficiency = Power output/p0

Applications of Reflex Klystron
Reflex Klystron is used in applications where variable
frequency is desirable, such as −

Radio receivers
Portable microwave links
Parametric amplifiers
Local oscillators of microwave receivers
As a signal source where variable frequency is desirable
in microwave generators.
 Traveling Wave Tube (TWT)

• The traveling wave tube (TWT) is an electron tube used for amplification at
microwave frequencies – generally identified as frequencies between 500 MHz and
300 GHz or to wavelengths measured from 30 cm to 1 mm.
• The TWT is not a new device. Its remarkable capabilities and some of its
potential applications have been known for nearly 60 years.
• It was invented during the latter part of World War II by an Austrian refugee, Dr.
Rudolf Kompfner, while working on microwave tubes for the British Admiralty.
• Power generation capabilities range from watts to megawatts.
• For helix TWTs, bandwidths may be as high as two octaves or more and power
levels of tens to hundreds of watts
• For coupled-cavity TWTs, bandwidths in the 10 – 20% range are common with
power levels in the megawatt levels. 41
 Components of a TWT

• At the left of this diagram is an electron gun assembly.

• The cathode, when heated, emits a continuous stream of electrons.
• These electrons are drawn through an aperture in the anode and are then focused into a
well-defined cylindrical beam by a magnetic field.
• The beam is thereby caused to travel inside the slow-wave circuit for the length of the
tube.
• The electrons are finally collected and their kinetic energy is dissipated in the form of
42
heat in the collector.
 Wave – Beam Interaction

• At the same time that the cylindrical electron beam is moving along the length
of the tube axis, the RF signal to be amplified is fed into the slow-wave
structure consisting, in this case, of a coiled wire called a helix.
•The RF energy travels along the helix wire at the velocity of light. However,
because of the helical path, the energy progresses along the axial length of the
tube at a considerably lower axial velocity, determined primarily by the pitch
and helix. 39
Specific Applications and TWT Design Trade-Offs

• The design of a TWT originates with the requirements to provide certain

amounts of gain and power over a certain frequency band
• These considerations lead to trade-offs that affect each of the major
subassemblies of the TWT. Those considerations include:
• Type of slow-wave circuit to be used in meeting the power and bandwidth
requirements, including the selection of cathode voltage and current to be
used in meeting those requirements.

44
• It is important to note that the higher thermal dissipation capability in
coupled-cavity TWT circuits can provide two orders of magnitude and
greater power output capability than available from TWTs having helix
circuits, at the penalty of increased size and weight;
• Method to be employed for focusing the electron beam;
• Method to be used for varying the beam current, including the method
used for turning the TWT on and off as well as any modulation required
during TWT operation;
• Operating life requirements;
• Environmental conditions under which the TWT will operate (ambient
pressure, ambient temperature, shock and vibration levels, etc.);
• Type of cooling available;
• Size and weight limitations;
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• Cost.
 Magnetron tube
• One microwave tube performs its task so well and so cost-effectively that
it continues to reign supreme in the competitive realm of consumer
electronics: the magnetron tube.

• This device forms the heart of every microwave oven, generating several
hundred watts of microwave RF energy used to heat food and beverages,
and doing so under the most grueling conditions for a tube: powered on
and off at random times and for random durations.

• Magnetron tubes are representative of an entirely different kind of tube

than the IOT and klystron. Whereas the latter tubes use a linear electron
beam, the magnetron directs its electron beam in a circular pattern by
means of a strong magnetic field:

46
Magnetic flux runs perpendicular to the plane of the circular electron path. In
other words, from the view of the tube shown in the diagram, you are looking
straight at one of the magnetic poles.

47
A cross-sectional diagram of a resonant cavity magnetron. Magnetic field is
perpendicular to the plane of the diagram
48
Magnetic flux runs perpendicular to the plane of the circular electron path. In
other words, from the view of the tube shown in the diagram, you are looking
straight at one of the magnetic poles.

49
•
Cavity resonators are used as microwave-frequency
"tank circuits," extracting energy from the passing
electron beam inductively.
• Like all microwave-frequency devices using a cavity
resonator, at least one of the resonator cavities is tapped with
a coupling loop:

• A loop of wire magnetically coupling the coaxial cable to the

resonant structure of the cavity, allowing RF power to be
directed out of the tube to a load.

• In the case of the microwave oven, the output power is

directed through a waveguide to the food or drink to be
heated, the water molecules within acting as tiny load
resistors, dissipating the electrical energy in the form of heat.

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• Magnetrons have been used since the 1940s as pulsed
microwave radiation sources for radar tracking.

• Because of their compactness and the high efficiency with

which they can emit short bursts of megawatt peak output
power, they have proved excellent for installation in aircraft
as well as in ground radar stations.

• In continuous operation, a magnetron can produce a

kilowatt of microwave power which is appropriate for
rapid microwave cooking.

51
Magnetron with magnet in
its mounting box. The
horizontal plates form a Magnetron with section removed
Heatsink, cooled by airflow (magnet is not shown)
from a fan

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 Health hazards

•Among more speculative hazards, at least one in particular is well known and
documented.
•As the lens of the eye has no cooling blood flow, it is particularly prone to
overheating when exposed to microwave radiation. This heating can in turn
lead to a higher incidence of cataracts in later life. A microwave oven with a
warped door or poor microwave sealing can be hazardous.
•There is also a considerable electrical hazard around magnetrons, as they
require a high voltage power supply. Operating a magnetron with the protective
covers and interlocks bypassed should therefore be avoided.
•Some magnetrons have ceramic insulators with a bit of beryllium oxide The
beryllium in this ceramic is a serious chemical hazard if crushed and inhaled, or
otherwise ingested. Single or chronic exposure can lead to berylliosis, an
incurable lung condition. In addition, beryllia is listed as a confirmed human
carcinogen by the IARC; therefore, broken ceramic insulators or magnetrons
should not be directly handled.

53
 Crossed-Field Amplifier
• A (CFA) is a specialized vacuum tube, first introduced in the mid-1950s and
frequently used as a microwave amplifier in very-high-power transmitters.

• A CFA has lower gain and bandwidth than other microwave amplifier tubes (such
as klystrons or traveling wave tubes); but it is more efficient and capable of much
higher output power.

• Peak output powers of many megawatts and average power levels of tens of
kilowatts can be achieved, with efficiency ratings in excess of 70 percent

• The electric and magnetic fields in a CFA are perpendicular to each other ("crossed
fields"). This is the same type of field interaction used in a magnetron; as a result,
the two devices share many characteristics (such as high peak power and
efficiency) and they have similar physical appearances. However, a magnetron is an
oscillator and a CFA is an amplifier; a CFA's RF circuit (or slow-wave structure) is
similar to that in a coupled-cavity TWT.

• Raytheon engineer William C. Brown's work to adapt magnetron principles to

create a new broadband amplifier is generally recognized as the first CFA, which
he called an Amplitron. Other names that are sometimes used by CFA
manufacturers include Platinotron or Stabilotron.
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 Backward Wave Oscillator (BWO)

• A backward wave oscillator (BWO), also called carcinotron (a trade

name for tubes manufactured by CSF, now Thales) or backward wave
tube, is a vacuum tube that is used to generate microwaves up to the
terahertz range. It belongs to the traveling wave tube family. It is an
oscillator with a wide electronic tuning range.

• An electron gun generates an electron beam that is interacting with a

slow-wave structure. It sustains the oscillations by propagating a
traveling wave backwards against the beam. The generated
electromagnetic wave power has its group velocity directed oppositely to
the direction of motion of the electrons. The output power is coupled out
near the electron gun.

55
56
 Longevity of MW Tubes

•Predictions have been propagating since the 1960s that microwave tubes
would have to be displaced by microwave solid-state devices.
•This displacement has occurred only at the low-power and receiving
circuits level of electronic systems.
•Microwave power tubes continue to perform as the only choice for high-
power transmitters and are expected to maintain this dominant role
throughout the next generation and beyond.
•Microwave techniques have been increasingly adopted in many electronic
systems, such as airborne radar systems, space-borne military defense,
missile guidance systems, and space communications links.
57
 Tube Parameters Affecting
Performance

• Power vs. Frequency

• Efficiency
• Harmonics
• Intermodulation Distortion
• Gain Flatness, Phase Linearity, and Group Delay
• Noise Figure
• Noise Power Output and Carrier–to–Noise Ratio
• Dynamic Range for Linear Operation
58
 Noise
Figure

•Noise figure (F) is the degradation in the signal-to-noise S/N ratio

•Si and Ni are the input signal and noise levels , So and No are the output
signal and noise levels

•Na is the noise added by the amplifier and Ga is the gain of the Amplifier
•Since the input noise level is usually thermal nose, the primary source of
noise in a TWT/tube is related to the density and electron velocity
variations with the electron beam.

•The level of the noise power is related to the number of electrodes in the
gun, the size of the electron gun, and its beam optics.
59
 Carrier – to – Noise
Ratio

•Ratio of the TWT output carrier at a defined operating point

(commonly saturation) and the surrounding TWT noise
density.
•C/N is the carrier – to – noise ratio (dB-Hz).
•Pout is the single carrier output power in dBm
•F is the TWT noise figure in dB
•Gnoise is the gain of the noise in the TWT

60
 Conventional Microwave Tubes

Increase of the operating frequency of conventional microwave tubes

RF power output becomes limited due to
 DC power dissipation
 RF losses
 Attainable electron current density
 Heat transfer (restricting the average power capability)
 Material breakdown (arcing) (restricting the peak power
capability)
 Difficulty of fabricating tiny parts

61
Unconventional high power microwave tubes
operable in the millimetre-wave frequency band
for instance, gyro-devices

Gyro-klystron, application in a linear accelerator

limited bandwidth
cavity-type interaction structures
Gyro-travelling-wave tube (gyro-TWT)
wider bandwidth
propagating waveguide interaction structure
For the communication purpose there is need to broaden
50
the bandwidth of a gyro-TWT
Better measure is transmitter system efficiency = ratio
of RF power available from the transmitter to the total
power needed to operate the transmitter.

The total power includes the power to generate the

electrons at the cathode, the power to generate any EM
fields required containing the electron beam, the power
required to cool the device, any other power needed for
the proper operation.

For maximum efficiency most high power RF sources

operate saturated (completely On or completely Off
with no intermediate levels) – generates rectangular
pulse like waveform.

63
•Many times highly shaped transmitted waveforms (amplitude
tapered or shaped pulse to reduce time side lobes in pulse
compression radars, to minimise RF interference to
others) need to be generated – efficiency of tubes is less.

•Life time of RF tubes is many tens of thousands of hours. Lack

of proper coolants, fans, blowers and damaged of mishandled
RF connectors reduce the MTBF of tubes.
64
Tube Output Power

65
 Klystrons

 It has high gain and good efficiency

Capable of higher average and peak power than most
other tubes.
Wide bandwidth, long life, low interpulse noise, good
stability for doppler processing.

TWT

 Slightly less power, less gain, less efficiency than

Klystron.
 Wide bandwidth at modest power levels.

Peak Power : up to 30 MW, Average power : 700 KW

Gain : 30 - 70 dB, Efficiency : 15 – 60 %
66
Bandwidth : 1 – 8 % (Klystron), 15 – 60 % (TWT)
 Magnetron

It is an oscillator, smaller in size and utilizes lower

voltages
Limited average power, poor noise and stability
characteristics.

CFA

Capable of high power, good efficiency, wide bandwidth,

relatively low power gain
 Generally noisier and less stable than other RF sources.

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TWT/SSPA Output Power Comparison

68
 Solid State Transistor Amplifiers

Wider Bandwidth, operate at low voltages, ease of

maintenance
Inherently of low power so that a large number of
devices can be combined to generate sufficient high power.
For good efficiency they should be operated at high duty
cycles.

69
 The Reality

Vacuum Devices are:

Fragile Robust

Short-lived Long-lived

Unreliable Reliable

Inefficient Efficient

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