UNIT-I SYSTEM COMPONENTS AND REPRESENTATION

Basic elements of control system

In recent years, control systems have gained an increasingly importance in the

development and advancement of the modern civilization and technology. Figure
shows the basic components of a control system. Disregard the complexity of the
system; it consists of an input (objective), the control system and its output
(result). Practically our day-to-day activities are affected by some type of control
systems. There are two main branches of control systems:

1)Open-loop systems and

2)Closed-loop systems.

1. Open-loop systems:

The open-loop system is also called the non-feedback system. This is the simpler
of the two systems. A simple example is illustrated by the speed control of an
automobile as shown in Figure 1-2. In this open-loop system, there is no way to
ensure the actual speed is close to the desired speed automatically. The actual
speed might be way off the desired speed because of the wind speed and/or road
conditions, such as uphill or downhill etc.
2. Closed-loop systems:

The closed-loop system is also called the feedback system. A simple closed-
system is shown in Figure 1-3. It has a mechanism to ensure the actual speed is
close to the desired speed automatically.

Mechanical Translational systems

The model of mechanical translational systems can obtain by using three basic
elements mass, spring and dashpot. When a force is applied to a translational
mechanical system, it is opposed by opposing forces due to mass, friction and
elasticity of the system. The force acting on a mechanical body is governed by
Newton‗s second law of motion. For translational systems it states that the sum of
forces acting on a body is zero.

Force balance equations of idealized elements:

1.
Consider an ideal mass element shown in fig. which has negligible friction and
elasticity. Let a force be applied on it. The mass will offer an opposing force
which is proportional to acceleration of a body.

Let f = applied force

fm =opposing force due to mass Here fm α M

d2 x / dt2

By Newton's second law, f = f m= M d2 x / dt2

2.
Consider an ideal frictional element dash-pot shown in fig. which has negligible
mass and elasticity. Let a force be applied on it. The dashpot will be offer an
opposing force which is proportional to velocity of the body.
Let f = applied force
f b = opposing force due to friction Here, f
b α B dx / dt

By Newton's second law, f = fb = M d x / dt

3.

Consider an ideal elastic element spring is shown in fig. This has negligible mass
and friction.

Let f = applied force

f k = opposing force due to
elasticity Here, f k α x
By Newtons second law, f = f k = x

Mechanical Rotational Systems:

The model of rotational mechanical systems can be obtained by using three

elements, moment of inertia [J] of mass, dash pot with rotational frictional
coefficient [B] and torsional spring with stiffness[k].

When a torque is applied to a rotational mechanical system, it is opposed by

opposing torques due to moment of inertia, friction and elasticity of the system.
The torque acting on rotational mechanical bodies is governed by Newton’s
second law of motion for rotational systems.

Torque balance equations of idealized elements 1.

Consider an ideal mass element shown in fig. which has negligible friction and
elasticity. The opposing torque due to moment of inertia is proportional to the
angular acceleration.

Let T = applied torque

Tj =opposing torque due to moment of inertia of the
body
Here Tj= α J d2 θ / dt2 By Newton‗s law

T= Tj = J d2 θ / dt2

2.
Consider an ideal frictional element dash pot shown in fig. which has negligible
moment of inertia and elasticity. Let a torque be applied on it. The dash pot will
offer an opposing torque is proportional to angular velocity of the body.

Let T = applied torque

Tb =opposing torque due to
friction Here Tb = α B d / dt (θ1-
θ2)
By Newton‗s law
T= Tb = B d / dt (θ1- θ2)
3.

. Consider an ideal elastic element, torsional spring as shown in fig. which has
negligible moment of inertia and friction. Let a torque be applied on it. The
torsional spring will offer an opposing torque which is proportional to angular
displacement of the body

Let T = applied torque

Tk =opposing torque due to
friction Here Tk α K (θ1- θ2)
By Newton‗s law T = Tk = K (θ1-
θ2)
Mechanical Rotational Systems:

The model of rotational mechanical systems can be obtained by using three

elements, moment of inertia [J] of mass, dash pot with rotational frictional
coefficient [B] and torsional spring with stiffness[k].

When a torque is applied to a rotational mechanical system, it is opposed by

opposing torques due to moment of inertia, friction and elasticity of the system.
The torque acting on rotational mechanical bodies is governed by Newton’s
second law of motion for rotational systems.

Torque balance equations of idealized elements 1.

Consider an ideal mass element shown in fig. which has negligible friction and
elasticity. The opposing torque due to moment of inertia is proportional to the
angular acceleration.

Let T = applied torque

Tj =opposing torque due to moment of inertia of the
body Here Tj= α J d2 θ / dt2
By Newton‗s law

T= Tj = J d2 θ / dt2
2.
Consider an ideal frictional element dash pot shown in fig. which has negligible
moment of inertia and elasticity. Let a torque be applied on it. The dash pot will
offer an opposing torque is proportional to angular velocity of the body.

Let T = applied torque

Tb =opposing torque due to
friction Here Tb = α B d / dt (θ1-
θ2)
By Newton‗s law
T= Tb = B d / dt (θ1- θ2)

3.

. Consider an ideal elastic element, torsional spring as shown in fig. which has
negligible moment of inertia and friction. Let a torque be applied on it. The
torsional spring will offer an opposing torque which is proportional to angular
displacement of the body
Let T = applied torque
Tk =opposing torque due to
friction Here Tk α K (θ1- θ2)
By Newton‗s law
T = Tk = K (θ1- θ2)
 Prev Pag
 e

 Modeling of electrical Next

system
Page


 Electrical circuits involving resistors, capacitors and inductors are

considered. The behaviour of such systems is governed by Ohm’s law and
Kirchhoff’s laws.

 Resistor: Consider a resistance of ‘R’ Ω carrying current ‘I’ Amps as
shown in Fig (a), then the voltage drop across it is v = R I




Inductor: Consider an inductor ― L’ H carrying current ’i ’ Amps as shown

in Fig (a), then the voltage drop across it can be written as v = L di/dt




Capacitor: Consider a capacitor ’C’ F carrying current ’i ’ Amps as shown in

Fig (a), then the voltage drop across it can be written as v = (1/C)∫ i dt




Steps for modeling of electrical system

o Apply Kirchhoff‗s voltage law or Kirchhoff‗s current law to form the
differential equations describing electrical circuits comprising of resistors,
capacitors, and inductors.

o Form Transfer Functions from the describing differential equations.

o Then simulate the model.


Example



 Electrical systems

 LRC circuit. Applying Kirchhoff‗s voltage law to the system shown. We
obtain the following equation;


 Resistance circuit


L(di /dt) + Ri + 1/ C ∫ i(t) dt =ei …………………….. (1)

1/ C ∫ i(t) dt =e0 ……………………………………….. (2)

Equation (1) & (2) give a mathematical model of the circuit. Taking the L.T.
of equations (1)&(2), assuming zero initial conditions, we obtain




 Armature-Controlled dc motors

 The dc motors have separately excited fields. They are either armature-
controlled with fixed field or field-controlled with fixed armature current.
For example, dc motors used in instruments employ a fixed permanent-
magnet field, and the controlled signal is applied to the armature terminals.

Consider the armature-controlled dc motor shown in the following figure.


Ra = armature-winding resistance, ohms
La = armature-winding inductance, henrys
ia = armature-winding current, amperes
if = field current, a-pares
ea = applied armature voltage, volt
eb = back emf, volts
θ = angular displacement of the motor shaft, radians
T = torque delivered by the motor, Newton*meter
J = equivalent moment of inertia of the motor and load referred to the motor
shaft kg.m2
f = equivalent viscous-friction coefficient of the motor and load referred to
the motor shaft. Newton*m/rad/s

T = k1 ia ψ where ψ is the air gap flux, ψ = kf if , k1 is constant
For the constant flux


Where Kb is a back emf constant -------------- (1)
The differential equation for the armature circuit


The armature current produces the torque which is applied to the inertia and
friction; hence


Assuming that all initial conditions are condition are zero/and taking the
L.T. of equations (1),
 (2) & (3), we obtain
 Kps θ (s) = Eb (s)
 (Las+Ra ) Ia(s) + Eb (s) = Ea (s) (Js2 +fs)

 θ (s) = T(s) = K Ia(s)
 The T.F can be obtained is




Analogous Systems

Let us consider a mechanical (both translational and rotational) and electrical
system as shown in the fig.


 From the fig (a)
 We get M d2 x / dt2 + D d x / dt + K x = f

 From the fig (b)
 We get M d2 θ / dt2 + D d θ / dt + K θ = T

 From the fig (c)

 We get L d2 q / dt2 + R d q / dt + (1/C) q = V(t)

 Where q = ∫i dt

 They are two methods to get analogous system. These are (i) force- voltage
(f-v) analogy and (ii) force-current (f-c) analogy

 Force –Voltage Analogy






 Force – Current Analog




Problem

1. Find the system equation for system shown in the fig. And also determine
f-v and f-i analogies








The system can be represented in two forms:

1. Block diagram representation
2. Signal flow graph
Transfer Function

 A simpler system or element maybe governed by first order or second
order differential equation. When several elements are connected in sequence,
say "n" elements, each one with first order, the total order of the system will be
nth order

 In general, a collection of components or system shall be represented by
nth order differential equation.


In control systems, transfer function characterizes the
input output
relationship of components or systems that can be described by Liner Time
Invariant Differential Equation

 In the earlier period, the input output relationship of a device was
represented graphically.

 In a system having two or more components in sequence, it is very
difficult to find graphical relation between the input of the first element and
the output of the last element. This problem is solved by transfer function




Definition of Transfer Function:

Transfer function of a LTIV system is defined as the ratio of the Laplace
Transform of the output variable to the Laplace Transform of the input
variable assuming all the initial condition as zero.

Properties of Transfer Function:

The transfer function of a system is the mathematical model expressing the
differential equation that relates the output to input of the system.

The transfer function is the property of a system independent of magnitude
and the nature of the input.

The transfer function includes the transfer functions of the individual
elements. But at the same time, it does not provide any information regarding
physical structure of the system.

The transfer functions of many physically different systems shall be identical.

If the transfer function of the system is known, the output response can be
studied for various types of inputs to understand the nature of the system.

If the transfer function is unknown, it may be found out experimentally by
applying known inputs to the device and studying the output of the system.

How you can obtain the transfer function (T. F.):

Write the differential equation of the system.

Take the L. T. of the differential equation, assuming all initial condition to be
zero. Take the ratio of the output to the input. This ratio is the T. F.

Mathematical Model of control systems

 A control system is a collection of physical object connected together to
serve an objective. The mathematical model of a control system constitutes
a set of differential equation.
 Synchros

 A commonly used error detector of mechanical positions of rotating shafts
in AC control systems is the Synchro.

 It consists of two electro mechanical devices.

 o Synchro transmitter

 o Synchro receiver or control transformer.

 The principle of operation of these two devices is sarne but they differ
slightly in their construction.

 o The construction of a Synchro transmitter is similar to a phase alternator.

 o The stator consists of a balanced three phase winding and is star
connected.

 o The rotor is of dumbbell type construction and is wound with a coil to
produce a magnetic field.

 o When a no voltage is applied to the winding of the rotor, a magnetic field
is produced.

 o The coils in the stator link with this sinusoidal distributed magnetic flux
and voltages are induced in the three coils due to transformer action.

 o Than the three voltages are in time phase with each other and the rotor
voltage.

 o The magnitudes of the voltages are proportional to the cosine of the
angle between the rotor position and the respective coil axis.

 o The position of the rotor and the coils are shown in Fig.



When =900 the axis of the magnetic field coincides with the axis of coil S2
and maximum voltage is induced in it as seen.

For this position of the rotor, the voltage c, is zero, this position of the rotor is
known as the 'Electrical Zero' of die transmitter and is taken as reference for
specifying the rotor position.

In summary, it can be seen that the input to the transmitter is the angular
position of the rotor and the set of three single phase voltages is the output.

The magnitudes of these voltages depend on the angular position of the rotor
as given


Now consider these three voltages to he applied to the stator of a similar

device called control transformer or synchro receiver.

The construction of a control transformer is similar to that of the transmitter
except that the rotor is made cylindrical in shape whereas the rotor of
transmitter is dumbbell in shape.

Since the rotor is cylindrical, the air gap is uniform and the reluctance of the
magnetic path is constant.

This makes the output impedance of rotor to be a constant.

Usually the rotor winding of control transformer is connected teas amplifier
which requires signal with constant impedance for better performance.

A synchro transmitter is usually required to supply several control
transformers and hence the stator winding of control transformer is wound
with higher impedance per phase.

Since the some currents flow through the stators of the synchro transmitter
and receiver, the same pattern of flux distribution will be produced in the air
gap of the control transformer.

The control transformer flux axis is in the same position as that of the
synchro transmitter.

Thus the voltage induced in the rotor coil of control transformer is
proportional to the cosine of the angle between the two rotors.
AC Servo Motors

An AC servo motor is essentially a two phase induction motor with modified
constructional features to suit servo applications.

The schematic of a two phase or servo motor is shown


It has two windings displaced by 90oon the stator One winding, called as
reference winding, is supplied with a constant sinusoidal voltage.

The second winding, called control winding, is supplied with a variable control
voltage which is displaced by -- 90o out of phase from the reference voltage.


The major differences between the normal induction motor and an AC servo
motor are

The rotor winding of an ac servo motor has high resistance (R) compared to its
inductive reactance (X) so that its X / R ratio is very low.

For a normal induction motor, X / R ratio is high so that the maximum torque is
obtained in normal operating region which is around 5% of slip.

 The torque speed characteristics of a normal induction motor and an ac
servo motor are shown in fig



The Torque speed characteristic of a normal induction motor is highly
nonlinear and has a positive slope for some portion of the curve.

This is not desirable for control applications. as the positive slope makes the
systems unstable. The torque speed characteristic of an ac servo motor is fairly
linear and has negative slope throughout.

The rotor construction is usually squirrel cage or drag cup type for an ac
servo motor. The diameter is small compared to the length of the rotor which
reduces inertia of the moving parts.

Thus it has good accelerating characteristic and good dynamic response.

The supplies to the two windings of ac servo motor are not balanced as in the
case of a normal induction motor.

The control voltage varies both in magnitude and phase with respect to the
constant reference vulture applied to the reference winding.

The direction of rotation of the motor depends on the phase (± 90°) of the
control voltage with respect to the reference voltage.

For different rms values of control voltage the torque speed characteristics are
shown in Fig.

 The torque varies approximately linearly with respect to speed and also
controls voltage. The torque speed characteristics can be linearised at the
operating point and the transfer function of the motor can be obtained.


DC Servo Motor


A DC servo motor is used as an actuator to drive a load. It is usually a DC
motor of low power rating.

DC servo motors have a high ratio of starting torque to inertia and therefore
they have a faster dynamic response.

DC motors are constructed using rare earth permanent magnets which have
high residual flux density and high coercively.

As no field winding is used, the field copper losses am zero and hence, the
overall efficiency of the motor is high.


The speed torque characteristic of this motor is flat over a wide range, as the
armature reaction is negligible.

Moreover speed in directly proportional to the armature voltage for a given
torque. Armature of a DC servo motor is specially designed to have low
inertia.

In some application DC servo motors are used with magnetic flux produced
by field windings.

 The speed of PMDC motors can be controlled by applying variable armature
voltage. These are called armature voltage controlled DC servo motors.

 Wound field DC motors can be controlled by either controlling the armature
voltage or controlling rho field current. Let us now consider modelling of
these two types or DC servo motors.

 (a) Armature controlled DC servo motor
 The physical model of an armature controlled DC servo motor is given in


The armature winding has a resistance R a and inductance La.

The field is produced either by a permanent magnet or the field winding is
separately excited and supplied with constant voltage so that the field current
If is a constant.

When the armature is supplied with a DC voltage of e a volts, the armature
rotates and produces a back e.m.f eb.

The armature current ia depends on the difference of eb and en. The armature
has a permanent of inertia J, frictional coefficient B0

The angular displacement of the motor is 8.
The torque produced by the motor is given by

 Where K T is the motor torque
 The back emf is proportional to the speed of the motor and
constant.
hence




The block diagram representation of the armature controlled DC servo motor
is developed in Steps

Usually the inductance of the armature winding is small and hence neglected




Field Controlled Dc Servo Motor

The field servo motor



Block diagram

A pictorial representation of the functions performed by each component and
of the flow of signals.

Basic elements of a block diagram

o Blocks

o Transfer functions of elements inside the blocks

o Summing points

o Take off points

 o Arrow

 Block diagram

 A control system may consist of a number of components. A block diagram
of a system is a pictorial representation of the functions performed by each
component and of the flow of signals.

 The elements of a block diagram are block, branch point and summing
point.




 Block

 In a block diagram all system variables are linked to each other through
functional blocks. The functional block or simply block is a symbol for the
mathematical operation on the input signal to the block that produces the
output.



 Summing point

 Although blocks are used to identify many types of mathematical
operations, operations of addition and subtraction are represented by a
circle, called a summing point. As shown in Figure a summing point may
have one or several inputs. Each input has its own appropriate plus or
minus sign.

 A summing point has only one output and is equal to the algebraic sum of
the inputs.

A takeoff point is used to allow a signal to be used by more than one block
or summing point. The transfer function is given inside the block

• The input in this case is E(s)
• The output in this case is C(s)

C(s) = G(s) E(s)


Functional block – each element of the practical system represented by
block with its T.F.

Branches – lines showing the connection between the blocks

Arrow – associated with each branch to indicate the direction of flow of
signal

Closed loop system

Summing point – comparing the different signals

 Take off point – point from which signal is taken for feed back


 Advantages of Block Diagram Representation

 o Very simple to construct block diagram for a complicated
system

 o Function of individual element can be visualized

 o Individual & Overall performance can be studied

 o Over all transfer function can be calculated easily.


 Disadvantages of Block Diagram Representation
 o No information about the physical construction

 o Source of energy is not shown

 Simple or Canonical form of closed loop system


R(s) – Laplace of reference input r(t)
C(s) – Laplace of controlled output c(t)
E(s) – Laplace of error signal e(t)

B(s) – Laplace of feed back signal b(t)
 G(s) – Forward path transfer function
 H(s) – Feed back path transfer function

 Block diagram reduction technique

 Because of their simplicity and versatility, block diagrams are often used by
control engineers to describe all types of systems. A block diagram can be
used simply to represent the composition and interconnection of a system.
Also, it can be used, together with transfer functions, to represent the cause-
and-effect relationships throughout the system. Transfer Function is defined
as the relationship between an input signal and an output signal to a device.
 Block diagram rules
 Cascaded blocks











Procedure to solve Block Diagram Reduction Problems


Step 1: Reduce the blocks connected in series Step

2: Reduce the blocks connected in parallel Step 3: Reduce the minor feedback
loops

Step 4: Try to shift take off points towards right and Summing point towards
left

Step 5: Repeat steps 1 to 4 till simple form is obtained

Step 6: Obtain the Transfer Function of Overall System


Problem 1

1. Obtain the Transfer function of the given block diagram





 2. Obtain the transfer function for the system shown in the
fig



3. Obtain the transfer function C/R for the block diagram shown in the
fig


Solution
The take-off point is shifted after the block G2






Signal Flow Graph Representation


Signal Flow Graph Representation of a system obtained from the equations,
which shows the flow of the signal

Signal flow graph

A signal flow graph is a diagram that represents a set of simultaneous linear
algebraic equations. By taking Laplace transfer, the time domain differential
equations governing a control system can be transferred to a set of algebraic
equation in s-domain. A signal-flow graph consists of a network in which
nodes are connected by directed branches. It depicts the flow of signals from
one point of a system to another and gives the relationships among the signals.

Basic Elements of a Signal flow graph

Node - a point representing a signal or variable.

Branch – unidirectional line segment joining two nodes.

Path – a branch or a continuous sequence of branches that can be traversed
from one node to another node.

Loop – a closed path that originates and terminates on the same node and
along the path no node is met twice.

Nontouching loops – two loops are said to be nontouching if they do not
have a common node.

Mason’s gain formula

The relationship between an input variable and an output variable of signal
flow graph is given by the net gain between the input and the output nodes is
known as overall gain of the system. Mason‗s gain rule for the determination
of the overall system gain is given below.




Where M= gain between Xin and Xout


Xout =output node variable

Xin= input node variable

N = total number of forward paths

Pk= path gain of the kth forward path

 ∆=1-(sum of loop gains of all individual loop) + (sum of gain product of all
possible combinations of two nontouching loops) – (sum of gain products of
all possible combination of three nontouching loops)


 Problem






TUTORIAL PROBLEMS

CONTROL SYSTEM MODELING


1. In the system shown in figure below, R, L and C are electrical parameters
while K, M and B are mechanical parameters. Find the transfer function
X(S)/E1(S) for the system, where E1(t) is input voltage while x(t) is the output
displacement.


2. (i) A block diagram is shown below. Construct the equivalent signal flow
graph and obtain C/R using Mason‘s formula.



3. (ii) For the block diagram shown below, find the output C due to R and
disturbance D.



 4. Write the differential equations governing the mechanical rotational
system shown in figure. Draw the torque-voltage and torque-current
electrical analogous circuits and verify by writing mesh and node equations.



5. (i) Using block diagram reduction technique, find the closed loop transfer
function C/R of the system whose block diagram is shown below.


(ii) Construct the signal flow graph for the following set of simultaneous
equations and obtain the overall transfer function using Mason‘s gain formula.

X2 = A21X1 + A23X3
X3 = A31X1 + A32X2 + A33X3
X4 = A42X2 + A43X3


6. (i) Consider the mechanical system shown below. Identify the variables
and write the differential equations.


(ii) Draw the torque-voltage electrical analogous circuit for the following
mechanical system shown.



(iii) Obtain the transfer function of the following electrical network.


7. (i) For the signal flow graph shown below, find C(S)/R(S) by using
Mason‘s gain formula.

(ii) Find the transfer function C(S)/R(S) of block diagram shown below.


8. (i) Reduce the block diagram to its canonical form and obtain C(S)/R(S).


(ii)Give the comparison between block diagram and signal flow graph
methods.
Determine the transfer function for the system having the block diagram as
shown below

(iii) Determine the transfer function of the network in the figure.



9. Determine the transfer function of the transistor‘s hybrid model shown in
figure using signal flow graph.


SYSTEMS AND THEIR REPRESENTATION


1. What is control system?

A system consists of a number of components connected together to perform
a specific function . In a system when the output quantity is controlled by
varying the input quantity then the system is called control system.

2. Define open loop control system.

The control system in which the output quantity has no effect upon the input
quantity is called open loop control system. This means that the output is not
feedback to the input for correction.

3. Define closed loop control system.

The control system in which the output has an effect upon the input quantity
so as to maintain the desired output values are called closed loop control
system.

4. What are the components of feedback control system?

The components of feedback control system are plant, feedback path
elements, error detector actuator and controller.

5. Distinguish between open loop and closed loop system


Open Loop
1. Inaccurate
2. Simple and Economical
3. The change in output due to external disturbance are not corrected
4. May oscillate and become un stable

Closed Loop
1. Accurate
2. Complex and Costlier
3. The change in output due to external
disturbance are corrected automatically
4. They are generally stable


6. Define transfer function.

The Transfer function of a system is defined as the ratio of the laplace
transform of output to Laplace transform of input with zero initial conditions.

7. What are the basic elements used for modeling mechanical
translational system.


Mass M, Kg,


Stiffness of spring K, N/m
and Viscous friction coefficient dashpot B, N-sec/m

8. What are the basic elements used for mechanical
modeling rotational system?

Moment of inertia J, Kg-m2/rad
dashpot with rotational frictional coefficient B, N-m/(rad/sec) And torsional
spring with stiffness K ,N-m /rad.

9. Name two types of electrical analogous for mechanical system.

The two types of analogies for the mechanical system are

Force voltage and
Force current analogy

10. What is block diagram?

A block diagram of a system is a pictorial representation of the functions
performed by each component of the system and shows the flow of signals.

11. What are the basic components of Block diagram?

The basic elements of block diagram are blocks, branch point and summing
point.

12. What is the basis for framing the rules of block diagram reduction
technique?

The rules for block diagram reduction technique are framed such that any
modification made on the diagram does not alter the input output relation.

13. What is a signal flow graph?

A signal flow graph is a diagram that represents a set of simultaneous
algebraic equations

.By taking Laplace Transform the time domain differential equations
governing a control system can be transferred to a set of algebraic equations in
s-domain.

14. What is transmittance?

The transmittance is the gain acquired by the signal when it travels from one
node to another node in signal flow graph.

15. What is sink and source?

Source is the input node in the signal flow graph and it has only outgoing
branches. Sink is a output node in the signal flow graph and it has only
incoming branches.


16. Define non touching loop.

The loops are said to be non touching if they do not have common nodes.

17. Write Masons Gain formula.

Mason‘s gain formula states that the overall gain of the system as follows
Overall gain,

T = T(S) = transfer function of the system

K= Number of forward path in the signal flow.


PK = forward path gain of the Kth forward path

 ∆ = 1 –(Sum of individual loop gains) + (Sum of gain products of all
possible combinations of two non touching loops) -(Sum of gain products of
all possible combinations of three non touching loops) + …….


∆k = (∆ for that part of the graph which is not touching Kth forward path)

18. Write the analogous electrical elements in force voltage analogy for
the elements of mechanical translational system.

Force, f à Voltage, e

Velocity, V à current, i

Displacement, x à charge, q

Frictional coefficient, B à Resistance, R

Mass, M à inductance, L

Stiffness, K à Inverse of capacitance 1/C

Newton‘s second law à Kirchhoff‘s voltage law.

19. Write the analogous electrical elements in force current analogy for
the elements of mechanical translational system.

Force, f à current, i

Velocity, V à Voltage, e

Displacement, x à flux, Ф

Frictional coefficient, B à Conductance, G =1/ R

Mass, M à capacitance C

Stiffness, K à Inverse of inductance, 1/L

Newton‘s second law à Kirchhoff‘s current law.

 20. Write the analogous electrical elements in torque voltage analogy
for the elements of mechanical rotational system.

 Torque, T à Voltage, e

 Angular Velocity, ω à current, i

 Angular Displacement, θ à charge, q

 Frictional coefficient, B à Resistance, R

 Moment of Inertia, J à inductance, L

 Stiffness of the spring, K à Inverse of capacitance 1/C

 Newton‘s second law à kirchhoff‘s voltage law.

 21. Write the analogous electrical elements in torque current analogy
for the elements of mechanical rotational system.

 Torque, T à current, i

 Angular Velocity, ω à Voltage, e

 Angular Displacement, θ à flux, Ф

 Frictional coefficient, B à Conductance, G =1/ R

 Moment of Inertia,J à capacitance C

 Stiffness of the spring, K à Inverse of inductance, 1/L

 Newton‘s second law à kirchhoff‘s current law.

 22. Write the force balance equation of an ideal mass, dashpot and
spring element.

 Let a force f be applied to an ideal mass M. The mass will offer an opposing
force fm which is proportional to acceleration.


f= fm = M d2X/dt2

Let a force f be applied to an ideal dashpot, with viscous frictional coefficient
B. The dashpot will offer an opposing force fb which is proportional to velocity.


f= fb = B dX/dt

Let a force f be applied to an ideal spring, with spring constant K. The spring
will offer an opposing force fk which is proportional to displacement.


f= fk = K X

23. Why negative feedback is invariably preferred in closed loop system?


The negative feedback results in better stability in steady state and rejects any
disturbance signals.

24. State the principles of homogeneity (or) superposition.

The principle of superposition and homogeneity states that if the system has
responses y1(t) and y2(t) for the inputs x1(t) and x2(t) respectively then the system response
to the linear combination of the individual outputs a 1x1(t) + a2x2(t) is given by linear

combination of the individual outputs a1y1(t)+a2y2(t), where a1, a2 are constant.


25. What are the basic properties of signal flow graph?

The basic properties of signal flow graph are

Signal flow graph is applicable to linear systems. It consists of nodes and
branches.

A node adds the signal of all incoming branches and transmits this sum to all
outgoing branches.

Signals travel along branches only in the marked direction and is multiplied
by the gain of the branch.

 The algebraic equations must be in the form of cause and effect
relationship.