CARBOHYDRATES

Yoli Antonnette M. Caldoza

BS-BIOLOGY IV
Can you live without sugar?
Learning Objectives
• Define carbohydrates,
At the end of • Identify the functions of

this lesson, carbohydrates in the cell,

• Differentiate the three
the students types of carbohydrates
according to the number
should be of their subunits, and
• Manipulate puzzles that
able to… can help in understanding
carbohydrates
 In this game, students will be
given puzzle pieces

The students are to arrange the

fragments to obtain a picture

Pic me! The pictures will be used in the

following discussion
Pic me!
Readings and References
• Biochemistry Textbooks
• Bettelheim, F. A. Brown, W. H. Campbell, M. K.
Farrel, S. O. 2010. Introduction to General,
Organic, and Biochemistry. 9th Edition.
Brooks/Cole. USA.
INTRODUCTI
ON
An Overview
For you, what
are
carbohydrates
?
From where do
we get energy?
45-65 % of our food should come from carbohydrates

The extra carbohydrates that we ate are stored in the…

››Liver
››Tissues (as fat)

Are grains, fruits, vegetables, legumes and sugar

But, How do we define carbohydrates
scientifically?
Carbohydrates are the
most abundant of all
organic compounds in
nature.
The word carbohydrate means
“hydrate of carbon” and
derives from the formula
Cn(H2O)m.

The simpler members of the

carbohydrate family are often
referred to as saccharides
because of their sweet taste
(Latin: saccharum, “sugar”).
How about in
plants?
 • In plants, energy from the sun is used to convert
carbon dioxide and water into the carbohydrate
Carbohydrates
glucose.

• Many of the glucose molecules are made

into long-chain polymers of starch that
store energy.
• Each day, we consume carbohydrates in
foods such as bread, pasta, potatoes,
and rice.
During digestion and metabolism…

Carbohydrates Glucose

which is oxidized further in our cells to provide our bodies

with energy & to provide the cells with carbon atoms for
building molecules of proteins, lipids and nucleic acids
In plants, cellulose (a polymer of glucose) builds the
structural framework which also has other importance.
Carbohydrates account for approximately
three-fourths of the dry weight of plants.

Animals (including humans) get their

carbohydrates by eating plants, but they do not
store much of what they consume.

In fact, less than 1% of the body weight of

animals is made up of carbohydrates
 Why are
carbohydrate
s important?
 FUNCTIONS OF
CARBOHYDRATES IN CELLS
Storehouses of chemical energy (glucose, starch, glycogen)

Components of supportive structures in plants (cellulose),

crustacean shells (chitin), and connective tissue in animals
(acidic polysaccharides)

Essential components of nucleic acids (D-ribose and 2-

deoxy-D-ribose)
 CLASSIFICATION OF
CARBOHYDRATES
3 Types of Carbohydrates
According to…
Monosaccharides
the number of Oligosaccharides
• Disaccharides
subunits that • Trisaccharides
• Tetrasaccharides

make them up.

Polysaccharides
 Monosaccharides
-are simple sugars, or the compounds
which possess…
* a free aldehyde (CHO) or ketone (C=O)
group
* and two or more hydroxyl (OH) groups.
-They are the simplest sugars and
cannot be hydrolyzed further into
 Monosaccharides
-Contain a single carbon
chain
- are classified on the basis of
number of carbon atoms they
possess,
-and as aldoses or ketoses
MONOSACCHARIDES:
CLASSIFICATION BY
CARBON ATOMS
Bettelheim et al.,
 MONOSACCHARIDES
Glucose Galactose Fructose

• The essential energy • Seldom occurs freely • The sweetest of all

source for all body in nature sugars (1.5x sweeter
functions • Binds with glucose than sucrose)
• Dextrose and Blood to form sugar in milk • Occurs naturally in
sugar (lactose) fruits and honey
• A component of • Once absorbed in the • “The fruit sugar”
each disaccharide body, galactose is
converted to glucose
to provide energy
 PROPERTIES OF
MONOSACCHARIDES
Mutarotation Glucoside
formation
Reducing
power
Oxidation/
Reduction
Methylation
or
Esterification
• When a • When D-glucose • Sugars having • The alcoholic OH, • The glucosidic
monosaccharide solution is treated free or potentially aldehyde (COH) and alcoholic
is dissolved in with methanol free aldehyde or or ketone (C=O) OH group of
water, the optical and HCl, two ketone group have group are
rotatory power of compounds are an ability to oxidized to mono-
the solution formed: reduce the cupric carboxyl group saccharides
gradually changes • α-D-glucoside copper to with certain and reducing
until it reaches a • β-D-glucoside cuprous. oxidizing agents. disaccharides
constant value. • Formed The oxidation react with
• gradual change in glucosides are not may be brought acetylating
specific rotation. reducing sugar under mild or agent like
• Shown by a and also does not with vigorous
oxidizing acetic
number of show
condition. anhydride in
pentoses, hexoses phenomenon of
and reducing pyridine to
mutarotation.
disaccharides form acetate
derivatives
 Oxidation/Reduction
1. With mild oxidant (BrH2O)
Only aldehyde is oxidized to
produce gluconic acid
(monocarbonic). Ketoses do not
respond to this reaction.
 Oxidation/Reduction
2. With strong oxidizing agent
(conc. HNO3)
Both aldehyde or ketone groups
are oxidized to yield dicarboxylic
acids.
 Oxidation/Reduction
3. Oxidation with metal
hydroxides [Cu(OH)2]
AgOH oxidize free aldehyde or
ketone group of mutarotating
sugar and reduce themselves to
lower oxides of free metals.
 Reduction
The aldehyde or ketone group
present can be reduced to its
perspective alcohol with sodium
amalgum.
Ex. Fructose and glucose give the
hexahydric alcohol (Sorbitol and
Mannitol)
free carbonyl groups
or in hemiacetal form
give positive tests to
Benedict’s and
Fehling’s reagents
without having been
hydrolyzed are referred
to as “reducing
sugars”;

others (acetal types) are

then “non-reducing
 Reducing Sugar Nonreducing Sugar
Carbohydrates with a free Aldehyde or ketone
aldehyde (at C-1) or a group not free but instead
free ketone (at C-2) utilized in bond
group. formation.
They are in hemiacetal or They are in acetal or ketal
hemiketal form form
Exhibit mutarotation Do not exhibit
mutarotation
Glucose, Fructose, Sucrose, Glycogen, Inulin
lactose, Maltose,
 Oligosaccharides
are compound sugars that
yield 2 to 10 molecules of the
same or different
monosaccharides on hydrolysis.
 Tetrasaccharid Pentasaccharid
Disaccharides Trisaccharides
es e

• Sucrose • Rhamino • Stachyos • Verbasco

• Lactose se e se
• Maltose • Gentiano • Scorodos
• Cellobios se e
e • Raffinose
• Trehalos (Melitose
e )
• Gentiobi • Rabinose
ose • Melezito
 Disaccharides
* Composed of 2
monosaccharides
* Cells can make disaccharides by
joining two monosaccharides by
biosynthesis.
 What is
Sucrose?
Where do we
get this?
Glucos Table sugar

e+ Found naturally in
Fructo plants (sugar cane,
sugar beets,

se = honey, maple
syrup) may be
Sucrose

Sucros
purified from plant
sources into brown,
white and
powdered sugars
How about
lactose?
Glucose The primary
sugar in milk
and milk
+ products
Galacto Many people
se have problems
digesting large
= amounts of
lactose (lactose
intolerance)
 And
Maltose?
Glucos Produced
when
e starch
breaks
+ down
Used
Glucos naturally in
fermentation
e reactions of
alcohol and
= beer
 Composed of
three
monosaccharides
Trisaccharides Raffinose
1 molecule of…
Glucose
Fructose
Galactose
 Stachyose
Tetrasaccharide
s 2 molecules of
galactose
1 molecule of glucose
1 molecule of fructose
 Polysaccharides
-Long chains of glucose units.
* Starch
* Cellulose (structure of plants)/Fiber
(our diet)
* Glycogen (energy storage;
synthesized by liver cells after meal to
maintain blood glucose levels)
 Starc
Digestible
h

Glycog
Digestible
en

Indigestib
Fiber
le
TYPES OF POLYSACCHARIDES

Starch Cellulose Glycogen

Amylose Amylopectins
 Cellulos Glycoge
Starch
e nStorage form of
Major digestible glucose in the
polysaccharide in Form cell walls
our diet in plants body
Stored in the
Storage form of liver and
carbohydrate in Also called muscles
plants fiber or ruffage Found in tiny
amounts in
Wheat, rice, corn, meat sources
rye, barley, Indigestible by
humans Not found in
potatoes, tubers,
yams, etc. plants
 Amylose Amylopectins
Contain beside straight chain
In the form of straight chain several branched chains, which
linked together with α-1-4, are ranged in α-1-4, and β-1-6
linkages indicating 300-5,500 linkage units
glucose units per molecule. 1 molecule of amylopectin
contains 50,000 to 500,000
glucose molecules
Generally water soluble and
gives blue color with iodine Insoluble in water and gives a
purple color with iodine
SUMMARY
Matchmade
in
Heaven
 Classified as Glucose

Form glycosidic
Monosaccharides Galactose
bonds
Maltose and
Fructose
Carbohydrates

Lactose
Oligosaccharides
Sucrose

Amylose

Found in plants as Amylopectin

Polymers of
Polysaccharides Cellulose
glucose
Stored in animals
Glycogen
as
 Assignment
• What is chair conformation?
• What are the cyclic structures of monosaccharides?
• Explain the meaning of the designations D and L as
used to specify the configuration of a
monosaccharide.
• What is an anomeric carbon?
 REFERENCES
• Shaw, V.2017. Carbohydrates.
http://www.uen.org>S401Carbohydrates
• Bettelheim, F. A. Brown, W. H. Campbell, M.
K. Farrel, S. O. 2010. Introduction to General,
Organic, and Biochemistry. 9th Edition.
Brooks/Cole. USA.
 Assignment
• In a short bond paper, draw the structures of
the basic monosaccharides.
Let us Recall!
 What are
Carbohydrates?
How to we identify an
aldehyde?
How to we identify a
ketone?
Bettelheim et al.,
What are the different types of
carbohydrates based on the number
of subunits they make?
What are the different properties of
monosaccharides?