SYSTEMATIC

OBSERVATION
OVERVIEW:
INTRODUCTION

DEFINITION

CHARACTERISTICS

TYPES OF OBSERVATION

RECORDING OF DATA

STEPS OF OBSERVATION

OBSERVATION TOOLS AND RECORDING DEVICES

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

SUMMARY
INTRODUCTION
 The term observation derives from Latin, meaning to watch, to attend to,

Dictionary definitions (e.g. Oxford English Dictionary, 1989) tend to stress

that it is concerned with the accurate watching and noting of phenomena
as they occur in nature, with regard to cause and effect or mutual
relations.
 An observational method is a great tool for data collection in psychology.

 We observe several items throughout our day, but psychological researches

are different from our daily observations as it involves some important

steps such as selection of the area of interest, noting the observations,
and analyzing the obtained data.
 It is also a process of recording the behavior of people, objects, occurrences

without questioning and communicating with them.

 Gathering the data through observation is itself a skill as an observer should

be well aware of his actual area of research and he/she should have a clear
picture in mind that what qualities or attributes he should observe, and what
he should avoid. 

 One example of a study using the observational method would be when a

researcher wants to study how children manage sharing of toys. He could

observe a group of children playing in the classroom, and record what things
they say or do that determine who gets to play with a coveted (greatly
desired) toy.
DEFINITION

 GORMAN AND CLAYTON defines observation studies as those that “involve

the systematic recording of observable phenomena or behavior in a natural

setting.”
 MARSHALL and ROSSMAN (1989) define observation as "the systematic

description of events, behaviors, and artifacts in the social setting chosen

for study"
 Observation enables the researcher to describe the existing situation using

his 5 senses, providing a “written photograph” of the situation under study.

(ERLANDSON, HARRIS, SKIPPER , & ALLEN, 1993).
CHARACTERISTICS
 Observation is a Systematic Method: Observation is not haphazard or unplanned.

The length of the observation periods, the interval between them, the number of
observations, the area or situation of observation and various techniques used for
observation are carefully planned.
 Observation is Specific: It is not just looking around for general aspects of human

behavior. Rather it is directed at those specific aspects of total situation which are
assumed to be significant from the stand point of the purpose of the study.

 Observation is Objective: Objective observations are factual. They are not

influenced by the observer's feelings, opinions, or biases. Objective observation

equals just the facts.
 Observation is an Affair of Eyes: P.V. Young remarks that observation is a systematic

and deliberate study through eye. An observer gathers the data which he has seen
in his own eyes.
 Definite Aim: Observation must have some definite aims and objectives. It should

be clearly defined before the beginning of the actual observation process.

 The Record of Observation is Made Immediately: During the observation period it

is very difficult on the part of the observer to remember each and every element of
observation. Therefore the observer should record all important information’s as
soon as the observation is completed.
 Observation is Verifiable: Observation result can be checked and verified.

Observation must be verified with usual criteria of reliability, validity and usability.
TYPES OF OBSERVATION:
Naturalistic Observation:
 If the researcher has made the observations in real-life or natural settings such

as schools, institutes, homes, open environments, etc., without interfering

with the phenomena under observation, then it is known as naturalistic
observation.
 In this type of observation, the researcher does not manipulate or control

any situation, and he/she only records the spontaneous behavior of the

subject (individual or event under investigation) in their natural

environment.

 With regard to human subjects, Margaret Mead used this method to

research the way of life of different tribes living on islands in the South

Pacific. Kathy Sylva used it to study children at play by observing their

behavior in a playgroup in Oxfordshire.

Participant Observation:
 The types of observation in which the observer or the researcher itself

becomes part of the research are called participant observations. The

other participants in the research may or may not be informed about the
presence of the observer in the group.
 This approach was used by Leon Festinger in a famous study into a

religious cult who believed that the end of the world was about to occur.
He joined the cult and studied how they reacted when the prophecy did
not come true.
 Participant observations can be either covert or overt. Covert is where the

study is carried out 'undercover'. The researcher's real identity and

purpose are kept concealed from the group being studied.
 On the other hand, overt is where the researcher reveals his or her true

identity and purpose to the group and asks permission to observe.

Controlled Observation:
 This method, mostly called as structured observation method, is one in which

the observer knows in advance as the what aspect of behavior or activities of

the people are relevant for his research work.
 The researcher decides where the observation will take place, at what

time, with which participants, in what circumstances and uses a

standardized procedure. Participants are randomly allocated to each
independent variable group.
 Rather than writing a detailed description of all behavior observed, it is

often easier to code behavior according to a previously agreed scale using

a behavior schedule (i.e. conducting a structured observation).
 The researcher systematically classifies the behavior they observe into

distinct categories. Coding might involve numbers or letters to describe a

characteristic, or use of a scale to measure behavior intensity.
 The categories on the schedule are coded so that the data collected can be

easily counted and turned into statistics.

 For example, Mary Ainsworth used a behavior schedule to study how

infants responded to brief periods of separation from their mothers.

During the Strange Situation procedure infant's interaction behaviors
directed toward the mother were measured, e.g.
 Proximity and contacting seeking

 Contact maintaining

 Avoidance of proximity and contact

 Resistance to contact and comforting

 Sometimes the behavior of participants is observed through a two-way

mirror or they are secretly filmed. This method was used by Albert Bandura
to study aggression in children (the Bobo Doll Studies).
 A lot of research has been carried out in sleep laboratories as well. Here

electrodes are attached to the scalp of participants and what is observed

are the changes in electrical activity in the brain during sleep (is called an
electroencephalogram – an EEG).
 Overt observations

 Non – participant method.

Recording of Data
 With controlled / structured observation studies an important decision the

researcher has to make is how to classify and record the data. Usually this will
involve a method of sampling. The three main sampling methods are:

Event sampling. The observer decides in advance what types of behavior

(events) she is interested in and records all occurrences. All other types of
behavior are ignored.
 Time sampling. The observer decides in advance that observation will take

place only during specified time periods (e.g. 10 minutes every hour, 1 hour
per day) and records the occurrence of the specified behavior during that
period only.
 Instantaneous (target time) sampling. The observer decides in advance the

pre-selected moments when observation will take place and records what is
happening at that instant. Everything happening before or after is ignored.
Steps of Observation
 Determine your research objective. 

 Understand the objective and goals of your research. Figure out what

questions you’re trying to answer, and determine who you’re trying to

observe and why.
 Determine questions and create a research guide

 From your research questions, create a research guide that outlines how

you’ll approach gathering answers to your questions.

 Establish your method of gathering data

 Determine whether you will be taking a naturalistic observation or an active

participant approach. Decide if you’ll be recording audio or video, taking

pictures, and/or taking notes. 
 Observe

 Go into the field and do your observations! Make sure you obtain all

necessary permissions ahead of time. 

 Prepare your data

 After the observation, prepare your data for analysis. Get your audio

and video recordings transcribed, and start to organize your notes and
papers.
 Analyze behaviors in your data

 Dive into the data and make sense of it. Systematically code and

organize your data to find themes and patterns.

Observation Tools and Recording Devices
 Observation guides

 Checklists

 Rating scales

 Schedule

 Field observation log

 Mechanical devices
Observation guides:

 Observation guides are the printed forms that provide space for recording

observations.
 They are particularly useful when several observers are involved or when

you wish to obtain comparable information from several sites/ observation

points or observation of many people.
 The more structured the guide, the easier it will be to tally the results.
Observation guides: Example
Checklists:
 Checklists represent a popular Structured Observation method. Simple checklist

enables the observer to systematically record the presence of a specified

behaviour or condition.
 Checklists can be classified as Static and Action Checklists.

 Static Checklists involve recording of such Observation as sex, age and other

characteristics of the environment.

 Action Checklists are concerned with the recording of actual behaviour. Thus,

the observer may be required to simply tally whether or not the behaviour took
place.
 In checklist, the behaviour is defined explicitly and operationally to facilitate a

quick and accurate categorisation of behaviour.

 These forms are used to record observation as in YES/NO option (present – not

present) on a rating scale to indicate extent or quality of something.

 Checklists are used when there specific observable items, actions, or attributes to

be observed.

 EXAMPLE:
Rating Scales:
 Rating Scales are used in observational studies to assess the quality of

some experienceor activity. Regardless of their objective, these scales are

frequently used in either of two ways:
 To record behaviour at frequent intervals throughout a sample of social

interaction.
 To rate the nature of the entire social events after it has completed.

 They are found in one or a combination of three basic forms:

 Numerical Rating scales

 Forced choice Rating scales

 Graphic Rating Scales

 Rating Scales: Example

Numerical Rating Scale

Graphic Rating Scale Forced Choice Rating Scale

Schedule:
An observation schedule is an analytical form, or coding sheet, filled

out by researchers during structured observation. It carefully specifies

beforehand the categories of behaviors or events under scrutiny and
under what circumstances they should be assigned to those categories.
Observations are then fragmented, or coded, into these more
manageable pieces of information, which are later aggregated into
usable, quantifiable data.
Schedule: Example
Field Observation Log:
 This may take the form of a diary or cards. Each item in observation is recorded

under appropriate subheading.

 A common logging strategy is to link brief descriptions, comments, notes, or

quotes to a timeline for an activity being observed.

Field Observation Log: Example
Mechanical Devices:
 These may include cameras, tape recorders, video tape and electronic

devices. Still, motion, sound, color and time-lapse cameras give a

permanent record of the event.
 Some observation studies have recorded events and interactions using

video recording devices and this is becoming increasingly common as

devices are less obtrusive, less expensive and easier to use.
 Mechanical Devices: examples
Advantages of Observation
Method
 Easiest method: The simplest method of data collection is the method of

observation. Very minimal technical knowledge is required, and even though

scientifically controlled observations require some technical skills, it is still more
accessible and more straightforward than other methods. It is easier because
every day, everyone observes different things in their lives. If little training is
given, then it can make a person perfect for observing their surroundings.
 Natural surroundings: The observation method of data collection describes the

observed phenomenon precisely and does not introduce any artificiality like
other methods. They describe the phenomenon precisely as it occurs in the
natural research environment. The observation method is not as restricted as
the experiment.
High accuracy: In interview methods and questionnaire methods, the

respondents’ information provides us the information with which the

researchers have to work. These are all indirect methods, and there is no
means to investigate the accuracy. But in the observation method, the
information accuracy can be checked by various testing. So, the data
collected by observation is much more reliable.

Appropriate tool: There is a particular phenomenon that cannot provide

information verbally regarding their behavior, activities, feelings, etc. For this
phenomenon, observations are the best method. The observation method is
essential for studies on infants who are unable to understand the details of
research work and cannot express themselves clearly.
 Less cooperation of the respondent is needed: The observation method

does not require people’s willingness to provide information regarding

them. There are various instances where the respondent refuses to speak
about themselves and their personal life to an outsider. Some do not have
the right communicative skills or time to provide information about
themselves to researchers. Even though observation cannot always
overcome such problems, it is still relatively easier to require less
cooperation from the respondent.
Disadvantages of Observation Method
 Everything is not observed: There are various personal behaviors and secrets

which the researcher does not observe. Many respondents refuse to let
researchers observe their activities, and due to this reason, not everything is
observed by the researcher. It also becomes difficult to gather information
about an individual’s personal opinions and preferences.

 Past life remains unknown: The observation method has no technique to study

the subject’s past life. It is tough to gather information about past life if the
subject is not cooperative enough. Since no other option is available,
researchers have to rely on documents that are not always accurate.
 Time-consuming: Observation is a prolonged and time-consuming method. If one

wants their observation to be precise and accurate, they must give it enough time

and not hurry the process. P.V. Young also remarked that observation is a method

that cannot be hurried. It is tough to complete an investigation in a limited period

through observation. Since it is a time-consuming process, there are chances that

the observer and the observed both lose their interests and deny continuing the

process.

 Expensive: Observation is a very costly affair. It requires plenty of time, strict and

detailed work, and high cost. Observation consists of traveling to various places,

staying at the place where the phenomenon occurred, and buying sophisticated

and high-quality tools for research. Due to the reasons mentioned above, the

observation method is known as one of the most expensive data collection

methods.
 Personal Bias: The personal bias of the researchers affects their

observation in many ways. This also creates issues for making valid
generalizations. The observer or researcher may have their insight of right
and wrong regarding specific events. They may also have different
preconceptions related to a particular event which jeopardizes the
objectivity of social research.
 SUMMARY
 Thus, It is a very complex, challenging, and creative method. Observation

method differs from other methods in that it requires the researcher to have
more specialized training on how to observe, what and how to record the data,
how to enter the field and leave it, and how to remain detached and involved
at the same time. The fact that the researcher may have to assume one or
more roles is unique to observational studies.
 Finally, the uses of one’s senses, as well as other data collection techniques,

make Observation a more holistic type of research that allows the researcher to
gain a better understanding of insiders from their own perspective.