Section 1 Temperature and

Chapter 9 Thermal Equilibrium

Preview
• Objectives
• Defining Temperature
• Thermal Equilibrium
• Thermal Expansion
• Measuring Temperature

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 Section 1 Temperature and
Chapter 9 Thermal Equilibrium

Objectives
• Relate temperature to the kinetic energy of atoms
and molecules.

• Describe the changes in the temperatures of two

objects reaching thermal equilibrium.

• Identify the various temperature scales, and convert

from one scale to another.

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 Section 1 Temperature and
Chapter 9 Thermal Equilibrium

Defining Temperature
• Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic
energy of the particles in a substance.

• Adding or removing energy usually changes

temperature.

• Internal energy is the energy of a substance due to

both the random motions of its particles and to the
potential energy that results from the distances and
alignments between the particles.

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 Visual Concepts
Chapter 9

Forms of Internal Energy

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Visual Concept

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 Section 1 Temperature and
Chapter 9 Thermal Equilibrium

Thermal Equilibrium
• Thermal equilibrium is the state in which two bodies in
physical contact with each other have identical
temperatures.
– By placing a thermometer in contact with an object and waiting
until the column of liquid in the thermometer stops rising or falling,
you can find the temperature of the object.
– The reason is that the thermometer is in thermal equilibrium with
the object.

• The temperature of any two objects in thermal equilibrium

always lies between their initial temperatures.

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 Section 1 Temperature and
Chapter 9 Thermal Equilibrium

Thermal Equilibrium
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Visual Concept

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 Section 1 Temperature and
Chapter 9 Thermal Equilibrium

Thermal Expansion
• In general, if the temperature of a substance
increases, so does its volume. This phenomenon is
known as thermal expansion.
• Different substances undergo different amounts of
expansion for a given temperature change.
• The thermal expansion characteristics of a material
are indicated by a quantity called the coefficient of
volume expansion.
• Gases have the largest values for this coefficient.
Solids typically have the smallest values.

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 Section 1 Temperature and
Chapter 9 Thermal Equilibrium

Thermal Expansion
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Visual Concept

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 Section 1 Temperature and
Chapter 9 Thermal Equilibrium

Measuring Temperature
• The most common
thermometers use a glass tube
containing a thin column of
mercury, colored alcohol, or
colored mineral spirits.
• When the thermometer is
heated, the volume of the liquid
expands.
• The change in length of the
liquid column is proportional to
the temperature.

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 Section 1 Temperature and
Chapter 9 Thermal Equilibrium

Measuring Temperature, continued

• When a thermometer is in thermal equilibrium with a
mixture of water and ice at one atmosphere of
pressure, the temperature is called the ice point or
melting point of water. This is defined as zero
degrees Celsius, or 0°C.

• When the thermometer is in thermal equilibrium with

a mixture of steam and water at one atmosphere of
pressure, the temperature is called the steam point
or boiling point of water. This is defined as 100°C.

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 Section 1 Temperature and
Chapter 9 Thermal Equilibrium

Measuring Temperature, continued

• The temperature scales most widely used today are the Fahrenheit, Celsius, and Kelvin scales.
• Celsius and Fahrenheit temperature measurements can be converted to each other using this equation:

9
TF  TC  32.0
5
9 
Fahrenheit temperature    Celsius temperature   32.0
5 
• The number 32.0 indicates the difference between the ice point value in each scale: 0.0ºC
and 32.0ºF.

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 Section 1 Temperature and
Chapter 9 Thermal Equilibrium

Measuring Temperature, continued

• Temperature values in the Celsius and Fahrenheit scales can have positive, negative, or zero values.

• But because the kinetic energy of the atoms in a substance must be positive, the absolute temperature that is proportional to that energy should be positive also.

• A temperature scale with only positive values is suggested by the graph on the next slide. This scale is called the Kelvin scale.

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 Section 1 Temperature and
Chapter 9 Thermal Equilibrium

Measuring Temperature, continued

• The graph suggests that if
the temperature could be
lowered to –273.15°C, the
pressure would be zero.
• This temperature is
designated in the Kelvin
scale as 0.00 K, where K
represents the
temperature unit called
the kelvin.

• Temperatures in the Kelvin scale are indicated by the symbol T.

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 Section 1 Temperature and
Chapter 9 Thermal Equilibrium

Measuring Temperature, continued

• A temperature difference of one degree is the same on the Celsius and Kelvin scales. The two scales differ only in the choice of zero point.
• Thus, the ice point (0.00°C) equals 273.15 K, and the steam point (100.00°C) equals 373.15 K.
• The Celsius temperature can therefore be converted to the Kelvin temperature by adding 273.15:

T  TC  273.15
Kelvin temperature  Celsius temperature  273.15

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 Section 1 Temperature and
Chapter 9 Thermal Equilibrium

Temperature Scales and Their Uses

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 Section 2 Defining Heat
Chapter 9

Preview
• Objectives
• Heat and Energy
• Thermal Conduction
• Conservation of Energy
• Sample Problem

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 Section 2 Defining Heat
Chapter 9

Objectives
• Explain heat as the energy transferred between
substances that are at different temperatures.

• Relate heat and temperature change on the

macroscopic level to particle motion on the
microscopic level.

• Apply the principle of energy conservation to

calculate changes in potential, kinetic, and internal
energy.

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 Section 2 Defining Heat
Chapter 9

Heat and Energy

• Heat is the energy transferred between objects
because of a difference in their temperatures.
• From a macroscopic viewpoint, energy transferred as
heat tends to move from an object at higher
temperature to an object at lower temperature.
• The direction in which energy travels as heat can be
explained at the atomic level, as shown on the next
slide.

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 Section 2 Defining Heat
Chapter 9

Transfer of Particles’ Kinetic Energy as Heat

Energy is transferred as heat from the higher-energy particles to the

lower-energy particles, as shown on the left. The net energy transferred
is zero when thermal equilibrium is reached, as shown on the right.

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 Section 2 Defining Heat
Chapter 9

Temperature and Heat

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Visual Concept

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 Section 2 Defining Heat
Chapter 9

Heat and Energy, continued

• The atoms of all objects are in continuous motion, so
all objects have some internal energy.
– Because temperature is a measure of that energy,
all objects have some temperature.
• Heat, on the other hand, is the energy transferred from
one object to another because of the temperature
difference between them.
– When there is no temperature difference between
a substance and its surroundings, no net energy is
transferred as heat.

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 Section 2 Defining Heat
Chapter 9

Heat and Energy, continued

• Just as other forms of energy have a symbol that
identifies them (PE for potential energy, KE for kinetic
energy, U for internal energy, W for work), heat is
indicated by the symbol Q.

• Because heat, like work, is energy in transit, all heat

units can be converted to joules, the SI unit for
energy.

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 Section 2 Defining Heat
Chapter 9

Thermal Units and Their Values in Joules

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 Section 2 Defining Heat
Chapter 9

Thermal Conduction
• The type of energy transfer that
is due to atoms transferring
vibrations to neighboring atoms
is called thermal conduction.
• The rate of thermal
conduction depends on the
substance. When this burner is
turned on, the skillet’s
• Two other mechanisms for
handle heats up
transferring energy as heat are because of conduction.
convection and
electromagnetic radiation.

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 Section 2 Defining Heat
Chapter 9

Convection, Conduction, and Radiation

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Visual Concept

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 Section 2 Defining Heat
Chapter 9

Conservation of Energy
• If changes in internal energy are taken into account
along with changes in mechanical energy, the total
energy is a universally conserved property.
• In other words, the sum of the changes in
potential, kinetic, and internal energy is equal
to zero.

CONSERVATION OF ENERGY
PE + KE + U = 0
the change in potential energy + the change in kinetic energy
+ the change in internal energy = 0

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 Visual Concepts
Chapter 9

Conservation of Energy
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Visual Concept

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 Section 2 Defining Heat
Chapter 9

Sample Problem
Conservation of Energy
An arrangement similar to the one
used to demonstrate energy
conservation is shown in the figure.
A vessel contains water. Paddles
that are propelled by falling masses
turn in the water. This agitation
warms the water and increases its
internal energy. The temperature of
the water is then measured, giving
an indication of the water’s internal
energy increase.

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 Section 2 Defining Heat
Chapter 9

Sample Problem, continued

Conservation of Energy, continued
If a total mass of 11.5 kg falls 1.3 m
and all of the mechanical energy is
converted to internal energy, by how
much will the internal energy of the
water increase? (Assume no energy
is transferred as heat out of the
vessel to the surroundings or from
the surroundings to the vessel’s
interior.)

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 Section 2 Defining Heat
Chapter 9

Sample Problem, continued

1. Define
Given:
m = 11.5 kg
h = 1.3 m
g = 9.81 m/s2
Unknown:
U = ?

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 Section 2 Defining Heat
Chapter 9

Sample Problem, continued

2. Plan
Choose an equation or situation: Use the
conservation of energy, and solve for U.

PE + KE + U = 0
(PEf – PEi) + (KEf – KEi) + U = 0
U = –PEf + PEi – KEf + KEi

Tip: Don’t forget that a change in any quantity,

indicated by the symbol ∆, equals the final value
minus the initial value.

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 Section 2 Defining Heat
Chapter 9

Sample Problem, continued

Because the masses begin at rest, KEi equals zero. If we
assume that KEf is small compared to the loss of PE, we
can set KEf equal to zero also.
KEf = 0 KEi = 0
Because all of the potential energy is assumed to be
converted to internal energy, PEi can be set equal to mgh if
PEf is set equal to zero.
PEi = mgh PEf = 0
Substitute each quantity into the equation for ∆U:
∆U = –PEf + PEi – KEf + KEi
∆U = 0 + mgh + 0 + 0 = mgh

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 Section 2 Defining Heat
Chapter 9

Sample Problem, continued

3. Calculate
Substitute the values into the equation and
solve:
U = mgh
U = (11.5 kg)(9.81 m/s2)(1.3 m)
U = 1.5  102 J

4. Evaluate
The answer can be estimated using rounded
values. If m ≈ 10 kg and g ≈ 10 m/s2, then ∆U ≈
130 J, which is close to the actual value calculated.

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