Module 5

Run-Time Environments
Outline
Source Language Issues
Procedures
Activation Trees(5marks)
Control Stacks
The scope of declaration
Bindings of names
Storage organization( 10 marks)
Subdivision of run time Memory
Activation records( 7 marks)

-Storage Allocation Strategies(10 marks)

- Static allocation
-Stack Allocation
- Heap allocation
-Parameter passing mechanisms(10 mark)-
Assignment
Compiler must do the storage
allocation and provide access to
variables and data
Memory management
Stack allocation
Heap management
Garbage collection
Storage Organization
Static vs. Dynamic Allocation
Static: Compile time, Dynamic: Runtime
allocation
Many compilers use some combination of
following
Stack storage: for local variables, parameters
and so on
Heap storage: Data that may outlive the call to
the procedure that created it
Stack allocation is a valid allocation for procedures
since procedure calls are nested
Activation Trees
A program is a sequence of instructions
combined into a number of procedures.
 Instructions in a procedure are executed
sequentially.
 A procedure has a start and an end
delimiter and everything inside it is called
the body of the procedure.
Procedure identifier and the sequence of
finite instructions inside it make up the
body of the procedure.
Activation Trees: example
The execution of a procedure is called its
activation.
 An activation record contains all the
necessary information required to call a
procedure.
 An activation record may contain the
following units (depending upon the source
language used).
Temporaries : stores temporary and intermediate
values of an expression.
Local Data :stores local data of the called
procedure.
Machine Status: stores machine status such as
Registers, Program Counter etc., before the
procedure is called.
Control Link :stores the address of activation
record of the caller procedure.
Access Link: stores the information of data which is
Activation records
Procedure calls and returns are usaully managed
by a run-time stack called the control stack.
Each live activation has an activation record
(sometimes called a frame)
The root of activation tree is at the bottom of the
stack
The current execution path specifies the content
of the stack with the last activation has record in
the top of the stack.
A General Activation Record
Activation Record
Temporary values
Local data
A saved machine status
An “access link”
A control link
Space for the return value of the called function
The actual parameters used by the calling
procedure
Designing Calling Sequences
Values communicated between caller and callee
are generally placed at the beginning of callee’s
activation record
Fixed-length items: are generally placed at the
middle
Items whose size may not be known early enough:
are placed at the end of activation record
We must locate the top-of-stack pointer
judiciously: a common approach is to have it point
to the end of fixed length fields.
Division of tasks between caller and callee
calling sequence
The caller evaluates the actual parameters
The caller stores a return address and the
old value of top-sp into the callee's
activation record.
The callee saves the register values and
other status information.
The callee initializes its local data and
begins execution.
corresponding return sequence
The callee places the return value next to the
parameters
Using information in the machine-status field, the
callee restores top-sp and other registers, and then
branches to the return address that the caller placed in
the status field.
Although top-sp has been decremented, the caller
knows where the return value is, relative to the current
value of top-sp; the caller therefore may use that value.
Access to dynamically allocated arrays
Memory Manager
Two basic functions:
Allocation
Deallocation
Properties of memory managers:
Space efficiency
Program efficiency
Low overhead
Typical Memory Hierarchy Configurations
Storage Allocation Strategies
1. Static allocation – allocates storage at
compile time
2. Stack allocation - manages run time
storage as stack
3. Heap allocation – allocates and de-
allocates storage area as needed
at runtime.
Static allocation
 In static allocation, names are bound to
storage locations
 This property allows values of local names
to be retained across the complete program
At the compile time compiler determines
how much storage should be allocated for
each object.
At the compile time, compiler determines
the following
1 . Where the activation records go, relative
to target code
2 . Where the addresses should be filled in
the records
3 . The address for the procedure calls
Limitations
Size & position of data objects must be
known at compile time.
Recursive procedures are restricted.
Data objects cannot be created
dynamically.
E.g.: Fortran
STACK ALLOCATION
Storage is organized as a stack
Activation records are pushed and
popped as activation begin and end
Storage for locals in each call of a
procedure is contained in
the activation record for that call
 
STACK ALLOCATION
 The values of locals are deleted when
the activation ends
A register can be used to mark the top
of stack.
At run time an activation record can
be allocated and de-allocated by
incrementing and decrementing register.
Heap Allocation
Stack is used for static memory allocation and Heap for
dynamic memory allocation