Control System

Engineering
Prof. Amitkumar B. Panchal, Assistant Professor
Electrical Engineering
 CHAPTER-3
FREQUENCY RESPONSE ANALYSIS
I. The Concept of Frequency Response
 Introduction
 Frequency response is the steady-state response of a system to a sinusoidal
input.

 In frequency-response methods, the frequency of the input signal is varied over

a certain range and the resulting response is studied.

System

Figure 1: Demonstrative image of system with input /output device

 The Concept of Frequency Response
 In the steady state, sinusoidal inputs to a linear system generate sinusoidal
responses of the same frequency.

 Even though these responses are of the same frequency as the input, they
differ in amplitude and phase angle from the input.

 These differences are functions of frequency.

 The Concept of Frequency Response
 Sinusoids can be represented as complex numbers called phasors.

 The magnitude of the complex number is the amplitude of the sinusoid,

and the angle of the complex number is the phase angle of the sinusoid.

 Thus M 1 cos( t   ) can be represented as M 11 where the frequency,

ω, is implicit.
 The Concept of Frequency Response
 A system causes both the amplitude and phase angle of the input to be
changed.

 Therefore, the system itself can be represented by a complex number.

 Thus, the product of the input phasor and the system function yields the
phasor representation of the output.
 The Concept of Frequency Response
 Consider the mechanical system.

Figure 2 : Mechanical System

 If the input force, f(t), is sinusoidal, the steady-state output response, x(t), of
the system is also sinusoidal and at the same frequency as the input.
 The Concept of Frequency Response
 Assume that the system is represented by the complex number
M ( ) ( )
 The output is found by multiplying the complex number representation of the
input by the complex number representation of the system.

M ( ) ( )
 The Concept of Frequency Response
 Thus, the steady-state output sinusoid is
M o ( )o ( )  M ( )M i ( )[ ( )  i ( )]
 Mo(ω) is the magnitude response and Φ(ω) is the phase response. The
combination of the magnitude and phase frequency responses is called the
frequency response.

M ( ) ( )
II. Bode Plot
 Bode Plot
 A Bode diagram consists of two graphs:

 One is a plot of the logarithm of the magnitude of a sinusoidal

transfer function.

 The other is a plot of the phase angle.

 Both are plotted against the frequency on a logarithmic scale.

Bode Plot
Bode Plot
 Basic Factors of a Transfer Function
 The basic factors that very frequently occur in an arbitrary transfer
function are

 Gain K
 Integral and Derivative Factors (jω)±1
 First Order Factors (jωT + 1)±1
 Quadratic Factors

20(3s  1)
G ( s)  (1)
s ( s  1)( s 2  5s  2)
 Basic Factors of a Transfer Function
 Gain K

 The log-magnitude curve for a constant gain K is a horizontal straight line at the
magnitude of 20 log(K) decibels.

 The phase angle of the gain K is zero.

 The effect of varying the gain K in the transfer function is that it raises or lowers
the log-magnitude curve of the transfer function by the corresponding constant
amount, but it has no effect on the phase curve.
Magnitude Plot (DC gain K =5)
Phase Plot (DC gain K =5)
Basic Factors of a Transfer Function
 Zeros at Origin Sn = (jω)n
Derivative Factor G( s )  s, where s  j (2)

Magnitude G( j )  20 log(  )

ω 0.1 0.2 0.4 0.5 0.7 0.8 0.9 1

db -20 -14 -8 -6 -3 -2 -1 0

Slope=6b/octave Slope=20db/decade

1 
Phase G( j )  tan ( )  90 
0
Magnitude Plot (For S)
Magnitude Plot ()
Magnitude Plot ()
Phase Plot (s)
Phase Plot ()
Phase Plot ()
Basic Factors of a Transfer Function
1
 Poles at Origin
sn
 When expressed in decibels, the reciprocal of a number differs from its
value only in sign; that is, for the number N,
1
20 log( N )  20 log( )
N
 Therefore, for Integral Factor the slope of the magnitude line would be same
but with opposite sign (i.e -6db/octave or -20db/decade).
1
MagnitudeG ( j )   20 log( ) (3)
j
1 
Phase G( j )   tan ( )  90  (4)
0
Magnitude Plot (For 1/S)
Magnitude Plot (For )
Magnitude Plot (For )
Phase Plot (1/s)
Basic Factors of a Transfer Function
 First Order zeros (jωT+1)
M ( )  20 log( 1  jT ) (5)

M ( )  20 log( 1   2T 2 )

M ( )  20 log(1)  0
1
 For Low frequencies ω<<1/T G ( s )  ( s  3)  (1  s )
3
M ( )  20 log( T )
1 T
T
 For high frequencies ω>>1/T
Magnitude Plot
Basic Factors of a Transfer Function
 First Order Factors (jωT+1)

 ( )  tan-1(T )

when   0,  ( )  tan-1(0)  0 

1
when   ,  ( )  tan-1(1)  45
T
when   ,  ( )  tan-1()  90
Phase Plot
Basic Factors of a Transfer Function
 First Order Factors (jωT+1)-1 (6)
M ( )  20 log( 1  jT )

M ( )  20 log( 1   2T 2 )

1
 For LowGfrequencies
(s)  ω<<1/T
( s  3)

M ( )  20 log(1)  0
 For high frequencies ω>>1/T
M ( )  20 log( T )
Magnitude Plot
Basic Factors of a Transfer Function
 First Order Factors (jωT+1)-1

 ( )  tan-1(T ) (7)

when   0,  ( )  tan-1(0)  0 
1
when   ,  ( )  tan-1 (1)  45
T
when   ,  ( )  tan-1()  90 
Phase Plot
 Example#1
 Draw the Bode Plot of following Transfer function.
20 s
G( s ) 
( s  10 )

2s
 Solution: G( s )  (8)
( 0. 1s  1)

 The transfer function contains

 Gain Factor (K=2)
 Derivative Factor (s)
 1st Order Factor in denominator (0.1s+1)-1
Example#1
2s
G( s ) 
( 0. 1s  1)
 Gain Factor (K=2) K db
 20 log( 2 )  6 db

 Derivative Factor (s) s db  20 log(  )  20 db/decade

 1st Order Factor in denominator (0.1s+1)

1
when   10,  20 log(1)  0
0. 1 j  1 db

1
when   10,  20 log( 0. 1 )  20db/dec
0. 1 j  1 db
Magnitude Plot
Magnitude Plot
Example#1
2 j
G ( j )  (9)
( 0. 1 j  1)

G( j )  2  j  ( 0. 1 j  1)

1 0 1  1
G( j )  tan ( )  tan ( )  tan ( 0. 1 )
2 0

G( j )  90   tan 1
( 0. 1 )

ω 0.1 1 5 10 20 40 70 100 1000 ∞

Φ(ω 89.4 84.2 63.4 45 26.5 14 8 5.7 0.5 0
)
Phase Plot
Bode Plot
Basic Factors of a Transfer Function
 Quadratic Factors (10)

2  2
M ( )  20 log (1  2 )  ( 2 )
n n

 For Low frequencies

M ( )  ω<<
20ωnlog(1) 0


M ( )  40 log( )  40db / dec
 For high frequencies ω>> ωn
n
 Relative Stability
 Phase crossover frequency (ωp) is the frequency at which the phase angle of the open-
loop transfer function equals –180°.

 The gain crossover frequency (ωg) is the frequency at which the magnitude of the open
loop transfer function, is unity.

 The gain margin (Kg) is the reciprocal of the magnitude of G(jω) at the phase cross over
frequency.

 The phase margin (γ) is that amount of additional phase lag at the gain crossover
frequency required to bring the system to the verge of instability.
Relative Stability

Figure 3 : Relative stability for stable and unstable system

Image Source: Modern Control Engineering by Katsuhiko Ogata - 4th Edition, Prentice Hall of India.
Bode Plot
Bode Plot
III. Polar Plot
 The Concept of Frequency Response
 A system causes both the amplitude and phase angle of the input to be
changed.

 Therefore, the system itself can be represented by a complex number.

 Thus, the product of the input phasor and the system function yields the
phasor representation of the output.
 Polar Plot
 The polar plot of a sinusoidal transfer
function G(jω) is a plot of the magnitude
of G(jω) versus the phase angle of G(jω)
on polar coordinates as ω is varied from
zero to infinity.

 Thus, the polar plot is the locus of

vectors as ω is varied from
zero to infinity.

Figure 4 : Example of a Nyquist Diagram

Image Source: https://dademuch.com/2020/02/15/sketching-the-nyquist-diagram/
Polar Plot

 Each point on the polar plot of G(jω)

represents the terminal point of a
vector at a particular value of ω.

 The projections of G(jω) on the real

and imaginary axes are its real and
imaginary components.
 Polar Plot
 An advantage in using a polar plot is
that it depicts the frequency response
characteristics of a system over the
entire frequency range in a single plot.

 One disadvantage is that the plot does

not clearly indicate the contributions of
each individual factor of the open-loop
transfer function.
 Polar Plot of Integral and Derivative Factors
 The polar plot of G(jω)=1/jω is the negative imaginary axis, Im
since

1
G ( j ) 
j
Re
1  j 1 ω=∞ -90o
G ( j )    j
j  j  

1
In polar form G( j )    90  ω=0

 Polar Plot of Integral and Derivative Factors
 The polar plot of G(jω)=jω is the positive imaginary Im
axis, since ω=∞

G ( j  )  j
90o
In polar form G( j )  90  ω=0 Re
 Polar Plot of First Order Factors
 The polar plot of first order factor in numerator is
G ( j  )  j  1
ω= ∞
Im
ω Re Im
0 1 0 2 ω=2

1 ω=1

1 1 1 ω=0
Re
1

2 1 2

∞ 1 ∞
 Polar Plot of First Order Factors
 The polar plot of first order factor in denominator is
1
G ( j ) 
j  1
1 1  j ω Re Im
G ( j )  
j  1 1  j
0 1 0
1  j
G ( j ) 
1 2 0.5 0.8 0.4
1 
G ( j )   j 1 1/2 -1/2
1 2 1 2
2 1/5 -2/5
∞ 0 0
 Polar Plot of First Order Factors
 The polar plot of first order factor in denominator is Im

ω Re Im
0 1 0
ω= ∞ 0.2 0.5 0.8 1
Re
ω=0
0.5 0.8 -0.4
-0.4 ω=2
ω=0.5
-0.5
1 0.5 -0.5 ω=1

2 0.2 -0.4

∞ 0 0
Polar Plot of First Order Factors
 The polar plot of first order factor in denominator is

ω Re Im G ( j ) G( j )
Im

0 1 0 1 0o

0.5 0.8 -0.4 0.9 -26o

ω=0
ω= ∞ Re
1 0.5 -0.5 0.7 -45o ω=1
ω=0.5
ω=2
2 0.2 -0.4 0.4 -63 o

∞ 0 0 0 -90
 Example#1
 Draw the polar plot of following open loop transfer function.
1
G( s ) 
s( s  1)
Solution 1
G ( j ) 
Put s  j j( j  1)

1
G ( j ) 
  2  j
1   2  j
G ( j )  2

   j   2  j

  2  j
G ( j ) 
4  2
Example#1
  2  j
G ( j )  4 2
ω Re Im
 
2 0 ∞ ∞
 
G ( j )  4 2
 j 4 0.1 -1 -10
    2
0.5 -0.8 -1.6
1 1
G ( j )  2
 j 2 1 -0.5 -0.5
 1 (  1)
2 -0.2 -0.1
3 -0.1 -0.03
∞ 0 0
Example#1
Im
ω Re Im
0 ∞ ∞
0.1 -1 -10 ω=∞
ω=2 ω=3
0.5 -0.8 -1.6 ω=1 Re
-1
1 -0.5 -0.5 ω=0.5

2 -0.2 -0.1
3 -0.1 -0.03
ω=0.1
∞ 0 0 -10
ω=0
IV. Nyquist Plot
Nyquist Plot
 Nyquist plots are the continuation of polar plots for finding the stability of the
closed loop control systems by varying ω from −∞ to ∞. That means, Nyquist
plots are used to draw the complete frequency response of the open loop
transfer function.
 Nyquist Stability Criterion
 The Nyquist stability criterion works on the principle of argument. It states that if
there are P poles and Z zeros are enclosed by the ‘s’ plane closed path, then the
corresponding G(s)H(s) plane must encircle the origin P−Z times. So, we can write
the number of encirclements N as,

 If the enclosed ‘s’ plane closed path contains only poles, then the direction of
the encirclement in the G(s)H(s) plane will be opposite to the direction of the
enclosed closed path in the ‘s’ plane.
 If the enclose d's’ plane closed path contains only zeros, then the direction of
the encirclement in the G(s)H(s) plane will be in the same direction as that of
the enclosed closed path in the ‘s’ plane
Nyquist Stability Criterion
 We know that the closed loop control system is stable if all the poles of the
closed loop transfer function are in the left half of the ‘s’ plane. So, the poles of
the closed loop transfer function are nothing but the roots of the characteristic
equation. As the order of the characteristic equation increases, it is difficult to
find the roots. So, let us correlate these roots of the characteristic equation as
follows.
 The Poles of the characteristic equation are same as that of the poles of
the open loop transfer function.
 The zeros of the characteristic equation are same as that of the poles of
the closed loop transfer function.
Nyquist Stability Criterion
 We know that the open loop control system is stable if there is no open loop
pole in the right half of the ‘s’ plane.

 We know that the closed loop control system is stable if there is no closed loop
pole in the right half of the ‘s’ plane.

 Nyquist stability criterion states the number of encirclements about the critical
point (1+j0) must be equal to the poles of characteristic equation, which is
nothing but the poles of the open loop transfer function in the right half of the
‘s’ plane. The shift in origin to (1+j0) gives the characteristic equation plane.
Rules for Drawing Nyquist Plots
 Locate the poles and zeros of open loop transfer function G(s)H(s) in ‘s’ plane.
 Draw the polar plot by varying ω from zero to infinity. If pole or zero present at
s = 0, then varying ω from 0+ to infinity for drawing polar plot.
 Draw the mirror image of above polar plot for values of ω ranging from −∞ to
zero (0− if any pole or zero present at s=0).
 The number of infinite radius half circles will be equal to the number of poles or
zeros at origin. The infinite radius half circle will start at the point where the
mirror image of the polar plot ends. And this infinite radius half circle will end at
the point where the polar plot starts.
 After drawing the Nyquist plot, we can find the stability of the closed loop
control system using the Nyquist stability criterion. If the critical point (-1+j0)
lies outside the encirclement, then the closed loop control system is absolutely
stable.
Stability Analysis using Nyquist Plots
 From the Nyquist plots, we can identify whether the control system is stable,
marginally stable or unstable based on the values of these parameters.
 Gain cross over frequency and phase cross over frequency
 Gain margin and phase margin

 Phase Cross over Frequency

The frequency at which the Nyquist plot intersects the negative real axis
(phase angle is 1800) is known as the phase cross over frequency. It is denoted
by ωpc.
 Gain Cross over Frequency
The frequency at which the Nyquist plot is having the magnitude of one is
known as the gain cross over frequency. It is denoted by ωgc.
Stability Analysis using Nyquist Plots
 The stability of the control system based on the relation between phase cross
over frequency and gain cross over frequency is listed below.
 If the phase cross over frequency ωpc is greater than the gain cross over
frequency ωgc, then the control system is stable.
 If the phase cross over frequency ωpc is equal to the gain cross over frequency
ωgc, then the control system is marginally stable.
 If phase cross over frequency ωpc is less than gain cross over frequency ωgc,
then the control system is unstable.
Stability Analysis using Nyquist Plots
 Gain Margin
The gain margin GM is equal to the reciprocal of the magnitude of the Nyquist
plot at the phase cross over frequency.

Where, Mpc is the magnitude in normal scale at the phase cross over frequency.
 Phase Margin
The phase margin PM is equal to the sum of 1800 and the phase angle at the
gain cross over frequency.
Where, is the phase angle at the gain cross over frequency.
 Stability Analysis using Nyquist Plots
 The stability of the control system based on the relation between the gain
margin and the phase margin is listed below.
 If the gain margin GM is greater than one and the phase margin PM is
positive, then the control system is stable.
 If the gain margin GM is equal to one and the phase margin PM is zero
degrees, then the control system is marginally stable.
 If the gain margin GM is less than one and / or the phase margin PM is
negative, then the control system is unstable.
References
1. Control Systems By Ashfaq Husain,Haroon Ashfaq-Dhanpat Rai & Co.
2. Control System Engineering By I.J. Nagrath, M. Gopal -New Age Publication.
3. Modern Control Engineering by Katsuhiko Ogata - 4th Edition, Prentice Hall of
India.
4. Feedback and Control Systems by Joseph J Distefano - 2nd Edition TMH.
5. Automatic Control System by B.C.Kuo- Wiley India
6. Control systems by N.C.Jaynn -2nd Edition, B.S. Publications
7. https://dademuch.com/2020/02/15/sketching-the-nyquist-diagram/
www.paruluniversity.ac.in