Intelligence Studies

&
National Security

(UNIT-I)

(Master 20015-16)
 Contents

Understating the concept of intelligence and security studies

History of Indian Intelligence

National Security Laws (Secret Act)

Basic role of Intelligence Organisation in securing India

 Concept of Intelligence in Security Studies
Definition
Intelligence as knowledge, process and organisation
Information gathering, surveillance, observation, reconnaissance,
spying, espionage, undercover work, infiltration, ELINT, cyber
espionage, humint; informal recon
 Concept of Intelligence
Background (Intel Studies)

A discipline slow to develop in universities

 Secrecy attach to intelligence matters

Academe reluctance to engage with clandestine services

Earlier ignored intel studies in security studies

Student’s late interest on the subject but now burgeoning in developed

countries
 Conc e pt of Int e l St udies

Preliminary initiatives in intelligence studies

Watergate-1972 and other conspiracies, films etc
Retired intel officers joining universities
Early 1980 rarely it started
1985, 54 courses on intelligence subjects were being taught at various US colleges and
universities
Journals Intelligence and National Security , Journal of Intelligence and Counter
Intelligence 
Late 80s course offered in American University, the University of Georgia, George
Washington University and Yale University, and at scores of colleges across the United
States, usually in departments of history or political science
1990s course spread across the US (1991 National Security Education Act and CIA 1993
seminar)
Research and writings begin
Journal of Intelligence History, was inaugurated in 2001 by the International Intelligence
History Association, based in Germany.; In 2007, the European Journal of Intelligence
Studies  under Belgian-Dutch editorship
1990s an estimated 200 or 300 courses on intelligence subjects were being taught in US
colleges and universities
 Concept of Intel Studies
Challenges facing in Intel Studies
Private universities and their predicament on funding from public
sectors
Question of sustainability in the studies
Dilemma on transparent activities such as conferences, scholarships
or research (closed door meeting)
Differences in capacity building
Question of compromise on national security with institutional
priorities
Unmatched of recourse allocation and needs of government
knowledge development
Intelligence studies not attract like high profile academic fields as
business and medicine
Trustworthy relationships built on mutual respect between intel and
academic communities
 Concept of Intel Studies
Evolution of intelligence studies programmes in academics
Degree program on Intel Studies
9/11 a roadmap to Intel degree course
US: Mercyhurst College in Pennsylvania and at Georgetown University's
School of Foreign Service
UK: Brunel University, Universities of Salford and Wales-Aberystwyth
Canada: Norman Paterson School of International Affairs at Carleton
University
Spain: Cátedra Servicios de Inteligencia y Sistemas Democráticos,
Universidad Rey Juan Carlos in Madrid
Intel study encompasses a multitude of governance, policy, institutional,
operational, and behavioural parameters in its intellectual purview
US intel communities’ Center of Academic Excellence' programme,
introduced in 2005
Funding began to be started in universities or in centres
 Concept of Intel Studies
Objectives/ Goal of Intelligence Studies


Obviously not to provide training in actual intelligence tradecraft (best left to
the national intelligence and security community itself)


To contribute to the building of public knowledge about the mandates,
strategies, structures and functioning of intelligence and security
organisations: historically and contemporaneously


Student career option in the intelligence offices, interest to work elsewhere in
government or the public sector, education and research, media, civil society
organisations, legal profession or in the private sector


Educational purview for aspiring intelligence analysts


Technical and science students can work in technical fields (protection of critical
 Contd...

 Professional analytical work remains classified in intelligence and security

community, however academic research precisely offer an outside perspective
based on open sources that allow new insights, comparative assessments,
analytical reviews or experiential accounts pertaining to intelligence and
security policies, organisations and activities

 Contribution of added value to broader governmental and public knowledge

 Academic research may, furthermore, prove useful for improving operational

capabilities, especially in the domains of intelligence analysis, community outreach,
and human resource management

 Univ do not themselves have political decision-making power and although they are
not major economic powers in their own right, nonetheless they do exert a powerful
influence on decision-makers and on students who will become decision-makers
 Conc e pt of Int e l St udies

Teaching intelligence studies

Qualified faculty remains an imposing constraint on the development
of intelligence studies programmes almost everywhere
Non availability of doctoral candidates on the subject and less funding
Early-retired practitioners /officials and faculty from cognate fields
induced to move to this growth area
Absence of a critical mass of dedicated intelligence studies
Delaying professorial retirements in order to retain faculty strength
may be feasible but can be only a short-term solution
Faculty expansion and staffing, libraries and related resources, in order
to achieve the warranted critical mass for (post)graduate education
Scholarly conferences, and publications would promote
Role of MHRD, UGC, Defence, MHA, Sc Tech
Scholarship in Intel Studies (UGC/NET)
 Histor y of Int el

 Chanakya (350–283 ) Arthashastra and Intelligence

Focus more on espionage, operational actives, covert action,
collection, organisation however missing analyses,
assessment and estimates for strategic planning
But provides methodological and theoretical ideas and
concepts for intelligence analysis, assessment, estimates and
strategic planning
The secret service or intelligence service is a central and
indispensable component of state
Dense network of stationary and mobile secret agents and
informants collecting information about treasonous
activities, corruption, serious crime and the popular mood
 The secret service acts as a ‘secret police’ with executive
powers and engages in various forms of ‘active measures’
 Histor y of Int el

 Five Intel Activities

Tracking down suspected treasonable individuals and
groups, infiltrating and manipulating them
 Tracing corruption, embezzlement and abuse of office in the
state apparatus, including ‘sting operations’
Silent liquidation of enemies of the state, whose extra-
judicial killing is disguised as accident, normal crime or
natural death
Staging political public relations (PR) operations to
influence
public opinion
Counter-espionage, including the use of double agents, and
operations against foreign subversion and sabotage.
 Histor y of Int el

Foreign Intel Activities

Information gathering on the political, military and economic
situation in order to identify strengths and weaknesses
Diplomatic personnel in foreign countries must collect
information, recruit agents of influence and participate in
subversive operation
Whenever political tensions and instability are ascertained, the
secret service should use local agents of influence to exacerbate
tensions and give covert support to treasonous persons and groups
as to further weaken and discredit the established governance
If an armed conflict looms, the secret service should weaken
the will to fight of the leadership and people as well as the
combat power of the armed forces through sabotage operations,
‘psychological warfare’ and covert assassinations of key political
and/or military leaders.
 Histor y of Int el

Intelligence Issues Addressed by Kautilya (Chanakya)

what are the professional requirements for different categories of

secret service agents

Which elements/personalities are suitable for secret agents

what are the psychological, social and political dispositions

to be exploited for the recruitment of informers and agents of
influence

 how can the secret service be controlled by organizational

segmentation and mutual surveillance within the service

how are secret agents rewarded for special achievements and

punished for misconduct

what forms of subversion and covert actions are most suitable for
achieving foreign policy objectives
 Histor y of Int el

Intel British India

In 23 December 1887, the Government created IB in the name of a Central Special
Branch, which acted as an embryonic political Police force to coordinate the activities
of numerous provincial Special Branches, which handled the vast bulk of data
collection

Monitored political organizations and their publications, religious sects and their
doctrines, the movements of criminals, the state of public opinion, illegal trade in
firearms, the availability of food and water, and inter-regional migration patterns

In 1903, the Central Special Branch was strengthened and renamed as the
Department of Criminal Intelligence (DCI);political and criminal surveillance;
Secretary of State refused to sanction posts for Hindu or Muslim analysts in the DCI;
British officer to headed the Department

Two-tiered intel system, with Indians producing information and Britons evaluating
it

Political intelligence on the Congress, and security intelligence on terrorist groups

 Histor y of Int el

The failure of Intelligence Bureau (IB), the internal intelligence

agency of India, to protect 1962 Sino-India and 1965 Indo-
Pakistan wars led to the establishment of the Research and
Analyses Wing (R&AW), external intelligence agency in 1968
After 1999 Kargil War
Failure of R&AW lead to establish National Technical Facilities
Organisation (NTFO), now known as the National Technical
Research Organisation (NTRO) in 2004

and limited technical skill of the Directorate General of Military

Intelligence (DGMI) lead to create Defence Intelligence Agency
(DIA) in 2002
Post 9/11
Multi Agency Centre (MAC), though it already existed since
2000s was activated only after 26/11
 Success and Failure of Inte
Famous Global Incidents in Past

United Kingdom (UK) in the 20th century won

counterinsurgency war against Malaya, Kenya and Northern
Ireland, but lost on Cyprus due to poor intelligence

With effective intelligence of United States led to win CI war

over Philippines, but not on Vietnam

 Due to lack of intelligence service, France and Portugal lost

CI operations in Algeria and Africa (Angola, Mozambique,
Guinea-Bissau, Cape Verde etc) respectively
 Official Secrets Act
Definition:
An Act to prevent spying and wrongful communication by military/government officials

Official Secret Act 1889

30 August 1843-Foreign Dept of GoI stated officials document not to make public (BEIC rule after
Battle of Plasseay from 1757-1858; GoI Act 1858 formed and direct control of India by British Crown
begins)

8 July 1875 the Home Department issued a Resolution that an official could become a correspondent
for a newspaper only after obtaining permission from his office

3 June 1885 the Home Department issued another Resolution- stated that the Viceroy had noticed that
information of a confidential nature frequently appeared in newspapers

Indian Fortifications Act, 1888-to prevent unauthorised entry and making of sketches of Military and
Naval stations

In September 1889 the Official Secrets Act was passed in Britain

As it was unsuitable to the Indian legal system, the Indian Official Secrets Act (Act XIV) of 1889 was
passed by the Viceroy’s Executive Council on 17 October 1889
 Official Secrets Act (contd)
The Indian Official Secrets (Amendment) Act, 1904

1896 arrest of photographer in Bombay Harbour and as 1889 Act was

not applicable Army ask for more stringent law but rejected by Lord
Curzon

1901, Parsee photographer and Colaba Fort picture; Curzon

reluctantly approved the amending bill in March 1902 as Army
persuade; but the Secretary of State in London rejected

January 1904 the Bill was sent to a Select Committee, several members,
including GK Gokhale; Pandit Madan Mohan Malaviya wrote a strong
letter of protest against the Bill

1 March 1904, bill was passed incorporating some amendments

suggested by Gokhale and Dr Ashutosh Mukherjee
 Official Secrets Act (contd)
Indian Official Secret Act 1923
1911, a new Official Secrets Act was enacted in Britain, repealing the British
Act of 1889

The Act applicable with Indian along with previous 1889/1904 OSA

Karachi incident and Indian Magistrate release as act of espionage was not an
offence in Indian Act unless committed by the employee

In July 1914 Army insisted Home Dept for similar British laws and after
approval of Viceroy Harding , letter was sent to Secretary of State in London
for approval; January 1915 response received from Secretary and not favoured

Again 1916 and 1919 pushed the draft to Viceroy again declined

Again in 1920 a new OSA was enacted in England (by amending the previous
Act of 1911); more powerful but not applicable in India
 Official Secrets Act (contd)
Indian Official Secret Act 1923 (Contd.)
India OSA 1889 was proposed to amend in 1921 (fourth proposal)

Penalty for spying under Section 3 was maximum 14 and minimum 3 years of
sentence; under Section 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9 it was two years; and under Section 10
(harbouring spies) it was one year

The Assembly met on 6 September 1922 to debate the bill; as opposed by many, a
committee was formed to study the bill and submitted its report on 30 January 1923;
removal of minimal sentence

Another Assembly met on 14 and 24 February 1923 consider the report of Select
Committee and debated on it; though it was opposed by few members the Legislative
Assemble passed it on 21 March 1923

The Governor General and Viceroy, Lord Reading, gave his Assent to the Indian
Official Secrets Act (Act No XIX of 1923) on 2 April 1923

Published in the Gazette of India on 14 April 1923 and has remained in force ever since
 Official Secrets Act (contd)
After Independence

The Bill to amend the Official Secrets Act was introduced in the Rajya
Sabha on 23 June 1967; and moved on 24 July 1967 by Shri Vidya Charan
Shukla, then Minister of State for Home Affair

Bill finally passed by Lok Sabha on 12 August 1967

Proviso of not being necessary in proving actions of an accused, which

earlier applied only to military was now applicable to all under Section 3

Over lapping aspect of OSA and Army, Navy and Airforce

In Navy Act, 14 years of sentence for spying and wrongful communication
was adopted; in serious nature (communication with traitorous) till death
 Official Secrets Act (contd)
Salient Points/Sections of OSA 1923
1. This Act may be called the Official Secrets Act, 1923; it extends to the whole of India and applies also
to servants of the Government and to citizens of India outside India

2. Definitions- Government place, obtaining or retaining any sketch, plan, model, article, note or
document, munitions of war, photograph, prohibited place (omitted Govt of UK and British etc), SP
includes police officers of same and above ranks

3. Penalties of spying- punishable with imprisonment for a term which may extend, where the offence is
committed in relation to any work of defence, arsenal, naval, military or air force establishment or
station, mine, minefield, factory, dockyard, camp, ship or aircraft or otherwise in relation to the naval,
military or air force affairs of Government or in relation to any secret official code, to fourteen years

4. Communications with foreign agents to be evidence of commission of certain offences, arrest on the
ground of suspicion

5. Wrongful communication etc., of information-If any person having in his possession or control any
secret official code or pass word or any sketch, plan, model, article, note, document or information
which relates to or is used in a prohibited place or relates to anything in such a place is considered to
be an offence; penalties with death or imprisonment for life, or imprisonment for a term which may
extend to ten years and shall, in either case, is liable and to fine
 Official Secrets Act (contd)
Salient Points of OSA

6. Unauthorised use of uniforms; falsification of reports, forgery, personation, and

false documents - fake stamps, signatures etc (two years in jail but can be extended
for 14 yrs)

7. Interfering with officers of the police or members of the Armed forces of the Union

8. Duty of giving information as to commission of offences- If any person fails to give

any suspected information to police or related authorities, he shall be punishable
with imprisonment which may extend to 3 [three years], or with fine, or with both

9. Attempts, incitements, etc- Any person who attempts to commit or abets the
commission of an offence under this Act shall be punishable with the same
punishment, and be liable to be proceeded against in the same manner as if he had
committed such offence

10. Penalty for harbouring spies - punishable with imprisonment for a term which may
extend to three years, or with fine, or with both
 Official Secrets Act (contd)
Salient Points of OSA

11. Search warrants- Magistrate of the first class or Sub-divisional Magistrate to issue warrant
orders to police, but in emergency police of higher rank can do it

12. Power to arrest- related to offence punishable under section 3, 5, and 7.... imprisonment for
a term which may extend to seven years

13. Restriction on trial of offences- No Court shall take cognizance of any offence under this Act
unless upon complaint made by order of, or under authority from appropriate Government

14. Exclusion of public from proceedings- ...publication of any evidence to be given or of any
statement to be made in the course of the proceedings would be prejudicial/harmful to the
safety of the State, that all or any portion of the public shall be excluded during any part of
the hearing-

15. Offences by companies-"company" means a body corporate and includes a firm or other
association of individuals; and "director", in relation to a firm, means a partner in the firm

16. The Indian Official Secret Act, 1889 and the Indian Official Secret (Amendment) Act 1904
are hereby repealed
 Role of Intel Orgn. in Securing India
 Justification for existence of Intel organisation after the end of
Cold War

 Today its importance has been increased to retain a strong

national security posture in the nation

 Similarly, India needs intel organisations to support its national

security aspect/activities both in internal and external level

 India intelligence has two broad functioning –collection and

analyses

 Relatively narrow one is covert action

 Counter intelligence as an integral process

 Role of Intel in Securing India
Collection
 Intelligence agencies collect information about internel/foreign persons,
places, events, and activities that is needed by the Government but cannot
be (or is not easily) obtained through publicly available sources or
diplomatic contacts

 Collection involves complexities, risky, expensive

 Political coast (friendly target nation)

 Various method of collection- TECHINT, HUMINT, SIGINT, IMINT, OSINT

 The collection of publicly available information should be considered a

support function rather than a task for intelligence collection

 Publicly available but uneasy to access (North Korea, China and Iraq news
paper)
 Role of Intel in Securing India
Analyses:
 Analysis contains information obtained by intelligence sources,
it is typically classified

 Intelligence analysts take information provided by sources and

combine it with information from publicly available sources, and
produce analysis for the customer

 Relevance and irrelevance to be discard by analyst

 Demands of consumer if not available, they managed from open

sources but still considered as intel report

 Accountability of analyst experience and their value addition in

inputs
 Role of Intel in Securing India
Covert Action
 Covert actions are used to influence political, military, or economic
conditions or situations abroad, where it is intended that the role of the
Indian Government will not be apparent or acknowledged publicly

 Propaganda activities, support to political or military factions within a

particular country; technical and logistical assistance to other governments
to deal with the problems within their countries, or actions undertaken to
disrupt illicit activities that threaten India interests

 Covert actions can be undertaken only in support of an "identifiable"

foreign/domestic policy objective

 R&AW normally carries out covert actions with support from respective
directors, NSA, PM; other agencies or dept. too support

 To disrupt the activities of a terrorist group, prevent narcotics traffickers from

manufacturing drugs for shipment in India, fake Indian currency
 Role of Intel in Securing India
Counterintelligence (CI)
 Protecting the country, as well as intelligence agencies, from the activities of foreign
intelligence services

 IB responsible for domestic counter intelligence (R&AW for overseas)

 Each of these elements has offensive and defensive missions-

 Offensively, they attempt to recruit agents within foreign intelligence services to

ascertain what, if any, operations are being undertaken against Indian Govt
 monitor the activities of known or suspected agents of foreign intelligence
services

 Defensively, to investigate cases of suspected espionage and prepare analyses for

government and industry concerning the foreign intelligence threat

 CI is beyond detecting and monitoring the activities of foreign intelligence services

and investigating employees suspected of espionage
 Role of Intel in Securing India
Why Intelligence/Mission of Intelligence

Support to Indian Diplomacy/Protect Indian interest (e.g. military, economic, and political)

Protecting land and sea areas

Monitoring relation between enemy nation and other countries

Following nuclear and military capabilities of enemy nation

Support to Defence Planning (R&D)

Economic Intelligence (info mostly -95% in OSINT); hawala illegal transaction

Counterterrorism; Counternarcotics; Counter proliferation; Countering International Organized Crime

(human trafficking, piracy)

Collecting and Analyzing Environmental Information (natural disaster including flood)

Protect from Information Warfare