Chapter nine

Electricity within the body

Assistant Prof. Dr. Siham Sabah Abdullah

 The nervous system &the neuron

The nervous system divided into

1.Central nervous system consists of

Brain, spinal cord, &the peripheral
nerves (nerve fibers )
2.Autonomic nervous system
controls
various internal organs such as
heart, intestines & glands
the control here is involuntary.
*nerve fibers (neurons) that transmit
Sensory information to the brain or
spinal cord (afferent nerves).

*Nerve fibers that transmit

information from the brain or spinal
cord to the appropriate muscles
&gland (efferent nerves).

Neuron: is the basic structure unit of

nervous system which is specialized
for reception & transmission of
electrical signals
neuron consists of
1- Cell body: that receives electrical
messages from other neurons through
contacts call -ed synapses located on the
dendrites or on the cell body.
2-dendrites: are the parts of the neuron
specialized for receiving information
from stimuli or from other cells.
3- Axon (or nerve fiber): carries the
electrical signal to muscles, glands or
other neurons. It's usually covered by
myelin sheath, except some parts called
((node of Ranvier))
Synapse: permit the transparent of a
signal on one direction &prevent it from
going back.
Resting Potential
*Across the surface or membrane of neuron is
an electrical potential (voltage) due to the
presence of more negative ions on the inside of
the membrane than on the outside this state
called (polarized).
*when the neuron at rest (polarized): the
voltage inside it's = -60 to -90 mv (more
negative ions than outside).
* The negative voltage inside the cell is called
resting potential of the neuron
Action potential (depolarization)
*its occurs when the neuron is stimulated by (heat,
cold, light, sound…etc).
*when the neuron is stimulated, there is a large
momentary change in resting potential occurs at the
point of stimulation .this momentary change in
voltage is called action potential .
*the action potential for most neurons &muscles
cells lasts about a few (msec).For cardiac muscles
=150-300 msec.
Repolarization
*its occurs after depolarization
*the negative ions &positive ions return to resting
potential.
Graphs of the potential measured between point p &the outside of the axon are also shown
*this axon has a resting potential of about
- 80 mv
*if the left end of the axon is
stimulated ,the membrane
walls become porous to
positive ions and these ions
pass through the membrane,
causing it to depolarize .the
inside
momentarily goes positive to
about 50 mv. the reversed
potential in the stimulated
region causes ion
movement .as shown by the
arrows in fig.
 The speed of the action potential
The factors affect the speeds of the action
potentials are:

1- The resistance (R) within the core of the

membrane .the resistance depends on
a) The length of the axon
b) The cross-section area of the axon
Rlength/cross section area
R  L/r2 (r=radius)
Low resistance (R): means increases in the
speed of the action potential.
*the resistance of the axon (R) decreases as
diameter increases, which will increases the
velocity of the action potential.
* The axon with large diameter has higher
velocity of action potential than the axon with
small diameter.
2-The capacitance (C) across the membrane
(or the charge stored)
Capacitance (C) =charge (Q)/voltage
The greater the stored charge on the
membrane (high (C)), the longer it takes to
depolarize it and thus the slower the speed.
This mean: low (C): increases the speed of
action potential
Q In myelinated nerves, the action potential is
faster many times than unmyelinated fiber why?

Because
a. low resistance in the core of the nerves.
b.low capacitance (the charges stored in a
myelinated section of a nerve fiber is very small
compared to that on an unmyelinated fiber of the
same diameter &length).
Electromyogram (EMG)
Is electrical device use to record the action
potentials from muscles during movement.
*A muscle is made up of many motor units.
* A motor unit consists of a single branching neuron
+
(25 to 2000 muscle fibers).
*single muscle cells are usually not monitored in an
EMG examination because it's difficult to isolate a
single fiber.

EMG-Electrodes
In general, the types of EMG
electrodes are:
A. Surface electrode
Attached to the skin, measure the
electrical signals from many
motor units.
B. Needle-electrode
*inserted under the skin
*measure the activity of single
motor unit
Method of EMG Recording
The device consists of the following :( see fig.)
Stimulation
EMG can be obtaining from muscles or motor
units that are stimulated by;
1. Electrical stimulation
2. Voluntary contraction.
Electrical stimulation is often preferred to the
voluntary contraction because:

Voluntary contraction Electrical stimulation

1. All the motor units 1. All muscle fibers fire at
don’t fire at the same nearly same time (≈0.1
time (≈100msec) ≈0.5 msec)
2. Each motor unit may 2.muscle cells may produce
produce several action the same action potential.
potentials.
3. The stimulation time is 3.its well defined
undefined
In electrical stimulation: the action potential
appears in the EMG after a latency period.

*latency period: is the time between

stimulation and the beginning of the response.
Fig: instrument arrangement for obtaining an
EMG during electrical stimulation.
EMG-During electrical Stimulation of the
Sensory &Motor nerves.
A. At low stimulation levels
Some of the sensitive sensory nerves are
activated but the motor nerves are not and
no muscle response.
B.For moderate stimuli
Two responses are obtained (both motor
&sensory nerves are seen).
C.At large stimulation
Only the motor nerve response is seen
The velocity of the action potential
1. Motor nerves
* Stimuli are applied at two locations.
*the latency period for each response is
measured.
*the time required for an action potential
to travel the distance
between them =the difference between
the two latency periods.
*velocity =distance /time
Example in fig.
Latency period at point (1) =8 msec.
Latency period at point (2) =4msec.
∆t=8-4=4 msec. =4×10-3 sec.
Velocity=distance/time=0.25/4 ×10-3=62.5
m/s
2. Sensory nerves
*can be measured by stimulating at one site.
*recording at several location.
*the distance between stimulation &recording is known
Example in fig.
From point (1) to point (2)
∆t=7-2.7=4.3 msec.
Velocity=distance/time
=0.25/4.3 ×10-3=58 m/sec.
From point (2) to point (3)
∆t=11-7=4 msec.
Velocity=distance /time
=0.2/4 ×10-3=50 m/s
The typical velocity =≈40-60m/s
Below 10 m/s indicated problems.
Electrical activity of the heart

1. The basic characteristics of

the heart muscle is the
rhythmic electrical activity.
2. Disturbance of the
electrical function is common
in the heart disease.
3. The pacemaker or
automatic cells of the heart
differ from the other cells.
 4. In normal heart, the cells of the sinus
node have the shortest spontaneous
depolarization time &so have the fastest
firing rate.
5.in the right atrium there is a tiny area
called sinus-node or sinoatrial node (SA-
NODE),fires at regular intervals =72 time
/min .it’s the pacemaker of the heart
6. SA-node (pacemaker) the electrical signal
begins at the SA-node.
Initiates the depolarization of the nerves
&muscles of both atria, causing the atria to
contract &pump blood into the ventricles the
atria then repolarize.
 7. Atrioventricular AV (node) which initiates
the depolarization of the Rt&Lt ventricles
causing them to contract &force blood into the
pulmonary &general circulations. The
ventricle nerves and muscles then repolarize
&the sequence begins again.
8. The nerves &muscles of the heart can be
regarded as sources of electricity enclosed in an
electrical conductor, the torso.
Note: obviously it's not practical to make
direct electrical measurements on the heart.
diagnostic information is obtained by
measuring at various places on the surface of
the body the electrical potentials generated by
the heart .the record of the heart's potentials
on the skin is called the electrocardiogram
(ECG).
9. The relationship between the pumping
action of the heart&the electrical potentials
on the skin can be understood by
considering the propagation of an action
potential in wall of the heart as shown in fig.
 10. Now, when the ventricles are half-
depolarized, the potentials (voltage drop)
distributed for the entire heart to the surface
(skin) as equipotential line. (The electrical
potentials reach on the surface of the body (skin)
as equipotential line.

11. The form of equipotential line is similar the

form of an electrical dipole.
Electric Dipole Model
1. Electric Dipole: is produced when equal
positive &negative charges are separated from
each other.
2. Its a vector (it has a magnitude &direction)

Electric-Dipole vector
The whole heart can be considered as a
large number of muscles contain a large
number of cells arranged in a complex
fashion. Suppose each cell as electric
dipole.
At any one time in cardiac cycle there are
a large number of dipoles, moving in
many directions.
The total electrical activity at any one
moment in time can summated and
represented as a single electrical force in a
certain direction .this is called
instantaneous vector.
The sum of all instantaneous vectors through
the cardiac cycle form cardiac vector or
electric dipole vector. The electrical potentials
on the skin are the instantaneous projection of
electric dipole. Its depends on:
a. the magnitude of dipole vector.
b. the direction of dipole vector.
c. the location of electrodes.
Electrocardiographic planes.
1. Frontal plane
2. Transverse plane
3. Sagittal plane
 Frontal plane ECG
Surface electrodes and leads
Einthoven triangle-model (standard limb
leads)
Einthoven hypothes, assumed the body is a
homogenous sphere (that’s not true).each
limb as an apex of an equilateral triangle, as
shown in fig.
The surface electrodes are located on the left
arm (LA), right arm (RA) and left leg (LL)
the term (LEAD) ;is the potential difference
between a pair of electrodes. The measurement
of potential between (LA&RA) is lead –I
Lead-I=LA-RA
Lead-II=LL-RA
Lead-III=LL-LA.
All three leads (Lead-I, Lead-II and Lead-
III)are called STANDARD LIMB LEADS.
Augmented leads
These leads are;
aVR=augmented right arm lead
aVL= augmented left arm lead
aVF= augmented left foot lead
The connection of the augmented leads as
follow;
For aVR-lead
One side of the recorder is connected to the
RA and the other side is connected to the
center of two resistors connected to LL and
LA
FOR aVL-lead
LA-electrode; connected between RA&LL.
For aVF-lead
LL-electrode connected between RA&LA.

In frontal plane ECG;

There are 3-standard limb leads+ 3-
augmented leads=6 leads
ECG-TRACING
The major electrical events
of normal heart cycle are
1. P-wave; Atria
depolarization.
2……; Atria repolarization
(rarely seen)
3. QRS; ventricular
depolarization.
4. T-wave; ventricular
repolarization.
The sign of wave form depends;
1. The magnitude &direction of the dipole
vector.
2. The polarity of electrodes
3. The position of electrodes
Transverse plane ECG
1. For the transverse plane measurements the
negative –electrode terminal of the ECG
recorder is attached to an indifferent electrode
at the center point of three resistors connected
to RA, LL&LA.
2. The positive electrode is moved across the
chest wall to six different positions
(V1,V2,V3,V4, V5&V6) (see-fig.)
In clinical ECG-exam. 6 transverse plane
ECG+ 6 frontal plane ECG .
Electric signals from the
Brian (the
Electroencephalogram
(EEG))
EEG: is a device recording
very weak electrical signals
from the cortex of the brain
Electrodes
Electrodes for recording the signals are
* Often small discs of chlorided silver.
* They are attached to the head at locations
that depend upon the part of the brain to be
studied.
*the number of electrodes
a. International standard; 10-20 system of
electrode location.
B.In routine exams; 8 to 16 channels are
recorded simultaneously
*the reference electrode is usually attached to
the ears.
Normal EEG Recording
1. Right side signals are often compared to the left side
signals. (Asymmetrical activity is often an indication of brain
disease).
2. The amplitude of EEG- signals is very low (about 50
micro- volts)
3. Eye movement can cause artifacts in the record so that,
the patient keeps his eye closed.
4. The frequencies of EEG signals are
a. Delta (ᵟ) or slow 0.5 to 3.5 Hz
b.Theta () or intermediate slow 4 to 7 Hz
c.Alpha () 8 to 13 Hz (relax person)

d.Beta () or fast greater than 13 Hz

(person more alert)
Application of EEG
1) Diagnosis of disease; it's used to determine
the distribution of electrical activity over a wide
areas of the cortex.
2) Aids in confirming brain tumor since
electrical activity is reduced in the region of a
tumor.
3) EEG is used as a monitor in surgery when
the ECG cannot be used.
4) Its useful in surgery for indicating the
anesthesia level of the patient.
 5) It used in sleeping research its involved observing
the EEG pattern for various stages of sleep as follow.
a. As a person becomes drowsy (his eye closed) the
frequencies from 8 to 13 Hz (Alpha waves) dominated
the EEG.
b. the amplitude increases &the frequency decreases as
a person move from light sleep to deeper sleep(Delta-
waves).
c. during sleeping EEG- shows a high frequencies
pattern called paradoxical sleep or rapid eye movement
(REM),because the eyes move during this period (REM,
associated with dreaming ).
d. when the brain receives external of EEG stimuli
such as flashing lights or pulses of sound. These signals
called Evoked Responses .the evoked responses is small.
Electrical signals from
the eye
Electroretinogram (ERG)
ERG: it's a device used
for recording of potential
changes produced by the
eye when the retina is
exposed to a flash of light.
 Method
1. Its used two electrodes
a.one electrode is located in contact
lens that fit over the cornea
b.other electrode is attached to the
ear
2. The ERG signal is the sum of
many effects taking place within the
eye.
3. B-wave is the most interesting
clinically since it arises in the retina.
(Normal ERG)
4. B-wave is absent in the ERG of a
patient with inflammation of the
retina that results in pigment
changes.
Electrooculogram (EOG)
It’s a device used for recording of potential
changes due to eye movement.
*we used a pair of electrodes attached near
the eye.
*EOG provide
1) Information on the orientation of the
eye.
2) Its angular velocity.
3) Its angular acceleration.
Magnetic signals from the heart &brain
1. The magnetocardiogram (MCG)
a. a magnetic field is produced by
the current in the heart during
depolarization &repolarization.
b.the magnetic field around the
heart is very weak, it's about 5×10-11
tesla (T).
c. MCG: it’s a device used to record
the hearts magnetic field.
To measure these weak magnetic fields it used:

a) Magnetically shielded rooms.

b) Magnetometers: its very sensitive magnetic
detectors such as (SQUID) (super conducting
quantum interference device).
The main physical characteristics of
magnetometer

a) Its operates at low temperature (about 5 k°)

b) Various points on the chest are measured by moving
the dewan.
c) The out put of magnetic field detector is recorded at
station outside the shielded room &the total time
involved is usually less than 1 minute.
d)Its very sensitive (can be detected about 10 -14 tesla ).
e) It can detect both steady direct magnetic fields
&alternating magnetic field.
The typical arrangement for obtaining an MCG
Comparison between the MCG&ECG

MCG: give information about the heart

without use electrodes.
ECG: used electrodes
ECG&MCG recordings: both have similar
features, because both of them arise from the
same charge movement.
MCG: provide information not available in
ECG, because MCG measures magnetic fields
due to direct currents.
Direct currents
*it’s a current occurs in injured &nerve
tissues.
*it's useful in diagnosis example, injury
current exist in the heart prior to heart attack.
Magnetoencephalogram (MEG):

1. Its an instrument used to record the

magnetic field surrounding the brain.
2. During alpha rhythm, the magnetic field
from the brain is about 1×10-13 tesla.
Comparison between MEG&EEG
1. MEG: can measure the fields resulting
from direct current.
EEG: cannot
2. The information obtained from EEG
recording is different from that obtained by
MEG.
3. MEG: Gives information without use
electrodes.
EEG: Used electrodes