Course

Metrology and Quality Control

Course code
MEE2009A

GOPINATH T
Assistant Professor
School of Mechanical Engineering
gopinath.t@mitwpu.edu.in
gopinathfromindia@gmail.com

25th April 2022 (Monday)

version #2
This document is designed, prepared, and made-available
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Corrections and suggestions, if any, with respect to the

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GT
Unit 2 Comparators and Design of Gauges

Comparators: Mechanical, Pneumatic, Optical,

Transducers-concept, classifications, Applications
Electrical transducers-types, working principles and
applications. i. Linear Variable Differential Transformer
(LVDT) Sensors-classification and applications.

Design of Gauges: Tolerances, Limits and Fits [IS 919-

1993], Taylor’s principle, Types of gauges, Wear
allowance on gauges, Types of gauges-plain plug gauge,
ring gauge, snap gauge, limit gauge and gauge materials,
Considerations of gauge design (numerical).
 Comparators
• A comparator is a precision instrument employed to
compare the dimensions of a given component with a
working standard (usually slip gauges)

• It thus does not measure the actual dimension but indicate

how much it differs from the basic dimension

• In mass production, identical component parts are

produced on a very large scale.

• Micrometer and vernier caliper are not more feasible

because skill involved and time required to measure the
dimension.

• In such case comparator is more suitable for the

measurement.
 Classification of Comparators

1. Mechanical Comparator: It works on gears

pinions, linkages, levers, springs, etc.

2. Pneumatic Comparator: Pneumatic

comparator works by using high pressure air,
valves, back pressure, etc.

3. Optical Comparator: Optical comparator works

by using lens, mirrors, light source, etc.
 Classification of Comparators

4. Electrical Comparator: Works by using step up,

step down transformers.

5. Electronic Comparator: It works by using

amplifier, digital signal, etc.

6. Combined Comparator: The combination of

any two of the above types can give the best result.
 Mechanical Comparators

Some of the comparators which belong to this class

are:

1. Dial indicator
2. Reed type comparator
3. Sigma comparator
4. Johnson Mikrokator
 Dial Indicator
It operates on the principle that a very slight upward
pressure on the spindle at the contact point is multiplied
through a system of gears and levers.

It is indicated on the face of the dial by a dial finger.

Dial indicators basically consists of a body with a round

graduated dial and a contact point connected with a spiral or
gear train so that hand on the dial face indicates the amount
of movement of the contact point.

The indicator is set to zero by the use of slip gauges

representing the basic size of part.
Dial Indicator
Dial Indicator
Different Uses of Dial Indicator
 Applications of Dial Indicator

1. Comparing two heights or distances between narrow

limits.

2. To determine the errors in geometrical form such as

ovality, roundness, and taper.

3. For taking accurate measurement of deformation such as

in tension, and compression.

4. To check the alignment of lathe centers by using suitable

accurate bar between the centers.

5. To check trueness of milling machine arbours and to

check the parallelism of shaper arm with table surface or
vice.
 Johansson Mikrokator

A Johansson Mikrokator (also called Abramson's

movement) is a simple mechanical comparator used to
obtain mechanical magnification of the difference in length as
compared to a standard. It works on the principle of a button
spinning on a loop of string. A twisted thin metal strip holds a
pointer, which shows the reading on a suitable scale. Since
there is no friction involved in the transfer of movement from
the strip to the pointer, it is free from backlash. It was
reportedly designed by a Swedish engineer, Hugo Abramson,
and by the company C.E. Johansson Ltd., and hence the
name, in 1938.
Johansson Mikrokator
Johansson Mikrokator
 Johansson Mikrokator
Principle

It works on the principle of a button spring spinning on a loop of string like in the
case of children’s toys.

The method of mechanical magnification is shown in figure.

It employs a twisted metal strip. Any pull on the strip causes the center of the strip
to rotate.

A very light pointer made of glass tube is attached to the center of the twisted metal
strip.

The measuring plunger is on the slit washer and transmits its motion through the
bell crank lever to the twisted metal strip.

The other end of the twisted metal strip is fastened to the cantilever strip. The
overhanging length of the cantilever strip can be varied to adjust the magnification
of the instrument.

The longer the length of the cantilever, the more it will deflect under the pull of the
twisted metal strip and less rotation of the pointer is obtained.
Reed Type Mechanical
 Reed Type Mechanical
How it works?

The reed mechanism is frictionless device for magnifying small motions of spindle.

It consists of a fixed block A which is rigidly fastened on the gauge head case.

The floating block B carries the gauging spindle and is connected horizontally to
the fixed block by reeds C.

A vertical reed is attached to each block with upper ends joined together, as shown
in the figure. Beyond this joint extends a pointer or target.

A linear motion of the spindle moves the free block vertically causing the vertical
reed to slide.

This movement causes the pointer or target to swing through an arc over the scale
proportional to the distance traveled by the spindle and of course very much
magnified.

Comparators of this type may have sensitivities of the order of 0.25 micron per
scale division.
 Sigma Comparator

M = (L/a) × (l/r)
Sigma Comparator
 Sigma Comparator
How it works?

The plunger is attached to a bar which is supported between the bending plates at
the top and bottom portion as shown in figure a.

The bar is restricted to move in the vertical direction. A knife edge is fixed to
the bar.

The knife edge is attached to the sapphire plate which is attached to the moving
block.

The knife edge exerts a force on the moving block through sapphire plate. Moving
block is attached to the fixed block with the help of crossed strips as shown in
figure b.

When the force is applied on the moving block, it will give an angular deflection.

A Y-arm which is attached to the moving block transmits the rotary motion to the
driving drum of radius r.

This deflects the pointer and then the reading is noted.

 Advantages of Mechanical Comparator

1. They do not require any external source of

energy.
2.These are cheaper and portable.
3.These are of robust construction and
compact design.
4.The simple linear scales are easy to read.
5.These are unaffected by variations due to
external source of energy such as air,
electricity, etc.
Disadvantages of Mechanical Comparator

• Range is limited as the pointer moves

over a fixed scale.
• Pointer scale system used can cause
parallax error.
• There are number of moving parts which
create problems due to friction, and
ultimately the accuracy is less.
• The instrument may become sensitive to
vibration due to high inertia.
 Principle of Autocollimator

In mechanical optical comparator, small variation in the

plunger movement is magnified firstly by mechanical
system and then by optical system.
 How it Works?

 In mechanical optical
comparator small displacement
of the measuring plunger are
amplified first by mechanical
system consisting of pivoted
levers.
 The amplified mechanical
movement is further amplified
by a simple optical system
involving the projection of an
image.
 Mechanical system causes a
plane reflector to tilt about an
axis and the image of an index
is projected on a scale on the
inner surface of a ground glass
screen.
 Optical magnification provides
the degree of measuring
precision.
IMPORTAN
T
 In this system,  Advantages of Optical
Comparators:-
•Mechanical amplification = x2 / x1  1. It has small number of moving
parts and hence a higher accuracy.
Optical amplification = (x4 / x3 ) * 2
 2. In the optical comparators, the
scale can be made to move past a
 It is multiplied by 2, because if datum line and thus have high
mirror is tilted by an angle δθ, then range and no parallax errors.
image will be tilted by  3. It has very high magnification.
• 2 x δθ.  4. Optical lever is weightless.
 Thus over magnification of this
system = 2 (x2 / x1) *(x4 / x3)
∝ radians= h/d
2∝ rad = OB/CO
Hence
2∝ rad. = 2h/d
OB/CO = 2h/d
OB/h = 2Co/d i.e. magnification
Profile projector
Electrical Comparator

• Principle:-
 Operation
depends on an
AC Wheatstone
bridge circuit
incorporating a
galvanometer.
Working:

• The plunger is the sensing element, the movement of which

displaces an armature inside a pair of coils.
• Movement of the armature causes change in inductance in the
two coils, resulting in a net change in inductance.
• This change causes imbalance in the bridge circuit, resulting in
an output.
• The output display device, whether it is analog or digital, is
calibrated to show the readings in units of length, that is, linear
displacement.
Electrical Comparator
Pneumatic Comparators (Solex Gauge):
Principle:
•It works on the principle of
pressure difference generated
by the air flow.

•Air is supplied at constant

pressure through the orifice
and the air escapes in the
form of jets through a
restricted space which exerts
a back pressure.

•The variation in the back

pressure is then used to find
the dimensions of a
component.
How It Works
Working:
 As shown in Figure (a) the air is compressed in the compressor at high
pressure which is equal to Water head H.
 The excess air escapes in the form of bubbles. Then the metric amount of
air is passed through the orifice at the constant pressure.
 Due to restricted area, at A1 position, the back pressure is generated by the
head of water displaced in the manometer tube.
 To determine the roundness of the job, the job is rotated along the jet axis,
if no variation in the pressure reading is obtained then we can say that the
job is perfectly circular at position A1.
 Then the same procedure is repeated at various positions A2, A3, A4,
position and variation in the pressure reading is found out.
 Also the diameter is measured at position A1 corresponding to the portion
against two jets and diameter is also measured at various position along the
length of the bore
 Metrological Advantages of
Pneumatic Comparators
 Reasons for Pneumatic Inspection of Small Holes:
 1. Pneumatic gaging elements can be very small. This permits precision
measurement of smaller inside diameters that is possible by other means of
measurement.
 2. Deeper holes can be inspected because depth has little effect noease of
measurement.
 3. Greater accuracy is obtained because rocking and centralizing are
unimportant.
 4. Nominal gaging force permits thin-walled and yielding materials to be
measured.
 5. Absence of metal-to-metal contact protects finely finished surfaces.
 Disadvantages of Pneumatic
Comparators:
 i)They require elaborate auxiliary equipment such as
accurate pressure regulation.
 ii) The scale is generally not uniform.
 iii) When indicating device is the glass tube, then
high magnification is necessary in order to avoid the
meniscus errors.
 iv) The apparatus is not easily portable and is rather
elaborate for many industrial applications.
 v ) Different gauging heads are required for different
Gauge Design
 Gauge Design (Numerical)

Example 1: A machine operator needs a gauge for

checking the diameter of bores being machined to
diameter 20+0.06 mm. What should be the dimensions
(diameter) of the gauge if unilateral system of
tolerances are incorporated? Assume gauge tolerance
and wear allowance each as 10% of work tolerance.
 Gauge Design (Numerical)
Example 1: A machine operator needs a gauge for checking the diameter of bores being machined to diameter 20+0.06 mm. What
should be the dimensions (diameter) of the gauge if unilateral system of tolerances are incorporated? Assume gauge tolerance and
wear allowance each as 10% of work tolerance.

Solution:
Hole = 20 + 0.06 mm
Here, Higher limit (upper limit) = 20.06 mm
Lower limit of hole = 20.00 mm

Work tolerance = 0.06 mm

Gauge maker’s tolerance is to be taken as

10% of work tolerance = 0.06 × 0.1

= 0.006 mm
and Wear allowance = 0.0006 mm

Go gauge corresponds to maximum metal condition of hole. i.e., lower limit of hole.
Go size considering wear allowance = 20.00 (Lower limit of hole + 0.006 = 20.006 mm

Hence, considering tolerance on gauge,

Go 20.00 +0.0066 -0.000 and

No Go 20.06 +0.000 – 0.006 mm (i.e. No Go corresponds to U.L. OF HOLE)

 Taylor’s Principle
According to Taylor, ‘Go’ and ‘No Go’ gauges
should be designed to check maximum and
minimum material limits, respectively.

‘Go’ Limit. This designation is applied to that

limit of the two limits of size which corresponds
to the maximum material limit
considerations, i.e. upper limit of a shaft and
lower limit of a hole. The form of the ‘Go’ gauge
should be such that it can check one feature of
the component in one pass.
 Taylor’s Principle
‘No Go’ Limit. This designation is applied to
that limit of the two limits of size which
corresponds to the minimum material
condition, i.e., the lower limit of a shaft and the
upper limit of a hole.

‘No Go’ gauge should check only one part or

feature of the component at a time, so that
specific discrepancies in shape or size can be
detected. Thus a separate ‘No Go’ gauge is
required for each different individual
dimension.
 LIMITS, FITS & TOLERANCE
 Terminology:- The terms related to limit system as per
BIS are as below;
 Size:- It is a number expressed
in a particular unit in the
measurement of length.
Hole
 Basic Size:- It is the size based
Basic Size

Shaft on which the dimensional

deviations are given.

 Actual Size:- It is the size of the component by actual

measurement after it is manufactured. It should lie
between the two limits of size.
 Limits of size:- These are the extreme permissible
sizes within which the operator is expected to make
the component. Maximum limit of size is the greater
of the two limit size, whereas the Minimum limit of
size is the smaller of the two limit of size.
 Hole:- In the B.I.S. system of limits
and fits, all internal features of a
Hole component including those which
Basic size

Shaft are not cylindrical are designated

as ‘Hole’.
 Shaft:- In the B.I.S. system of limits and fits, all
external features of a component including those
which are not cylindrical are designated as ‘Shaft’.
  Tolerance:- It is the
Lower Deviation

Upper Deviation

difference between
Tolerance

maximum limit of size and

the minimum limit of size.
Hole It is always positive and is
expressed only as a number
Max.dia.

Min.dia.

Shaft without a sign.

 Zero line:- In graphical representation of the above

terms, the zero line represents the basic size. This line
is also called as the line of zero deviation.
 Upper Deviation
 Fundamental deviation:-
Lower Deviation

There are 25 fundamental

Tolerance

Tolerance
deviations in the B.I.S.
system represented by letter,
Hole
symbols (Capital letters for
Holes and small letters for
Max.dia.

Min.dia.

Max.dia.
Min.dia.

Shaft Shaft)
  Fundamental Tolerance:-
Lower Deviation

Upper Deviation

This is also called as

Tolerance

‘grade of tolerance’. In the

Indian Standard System,
there are 18 grades
Hole
represented by number
Max.dia.

symbols, both for hole and

Min.dia.

Max.dia.
Min.dia.

Shaft shaft denoted as IT01, IT0,

IT1, IT2.....IT16. A high
number indicates more
tolerance
 FIT:- It is the relationship that exists between two
mating parts, a hole and shaft with respect to their
dimensional difference before assembly. Three types of
fit are given hereunder;
 Clearance fit:- It is a fit which
always provides clearance. Here
Clearanc
e fit the tolerance zone of the hole will
be above the tolerance zone of the
Hole Shaft
shaft. Maximum clearance is the
difference between the maximum
hole and minimum shaft.
Minimum clearance is the
difference between the minimum
hole and maximum shaft.
  Interference fit:- It is a fit
which always provides
Tolerance Zone of Tolerance Zone of
interference. Here the tolerance
Hole Shaft
zone of the hole will be below
the tolerance zone of the shaft.
Shaft
Maximum interference is the
Hole
algebraic difference between
the minimum hole and
maximum shaft. Minimum
interference is the algebraic
difference between the
maximum hole and minimum
shaft.
  Transition fit:- It is a fit which
Shaft
may sometimes provides
Hole Hole clearance and sometimes
interference. When this class of
Hole fit is represented graphically,
Shaft
Shaft
the tolerance zone of the hole
and shaft will overlap each
other.

Mass Production :- Mass production means production

of a unit, component or part in large numbers.
Advantages:- 1.Time for the manufacture of
components is reduced
2.The cost of pieces is reduced. 3.
Spare parts can be quickly made
available. Disadvantages:-1. Special
purpose machines are necessary.
2.Jigs and Fixtures are
needed. 3. Gauges are to be used
instead of conventional precision
instruments. 4. Initial expenditure will be
very high.
 Interchangeability:- When components are mass
produced, unless they are interchangeable, the purpose of
mass production is not fulfilled. By interchangeability, we
mean that identical components, manufactured by
different personnel under different environments, can be
assembled and replaced without any further rectification
during the assembly stage, without affecting the
functioning of the component when assembled.
 Hole Basis System:- Where the
size of the hole is kept constant
and the size of the shaft is varied
to get the different class of fits,
then it is known as the hole basis
system.
 Shaft Basis System:- Where the
size of the shaft is kept constant
and the variations given to the
hole to get the different class of
fits, then it is known as the shaft
basis system.
 GAUGES

• Gauges are scale less inspection tools at rigid design which are
used to
• check the dimensions of manufactured parts. Measurement by
gauges is
• Easy and rapid. So they are suitable in mass production. Instead
of
• measuring actual dimension of each part which is time
consuming and
• Costly, the conformance of part with tolerance specification can
be
• checked by gauges.
 Types of Gauges
Plain gauges are used to check plain, i.e. unthreaded holes and shafts.
• Classification:
• 1.According to Type
• (a)Standard Gauge: If a gauge is made as an exact copy of the mating part
• Of component to be checked, it is called standard gauge.
• A standard gauge can’t be used to check interference fit.
• It has limited application.
• (a)Limit Gauge: Two gauges are used to check each dimension of the
• Part i.e. upper and lower limit. These are “GO” and “NO-GO” gauges.
• GO gauges check MML and NO GO gauges check LML.
• These are widely used industries.
• A part is considered to be good if the GO gauge pass through the work and
• the NO GO gauge fails to pass under the action of its own weight. This
• Confirms the actual dimension of part with in the specified tolerances.
• If both the gauges fail, it indicates that hole is under size and shaft is
• Oversize.
• According to Purpose:
• a) Workshop gauge
• b) Inspection gauge
• c) Reference or master gauge
• d) Purchase inspection gauge
• 2. According to the form of the tested surface:
• a) Plug gauges for checking holes
• b) Snap or Ring or Gap gauges for checking the shaft
• 3. According to their design:
• a) Single limit or double limit gauges
• b) Single ended or double ended gauges
• c) Fixed and adjustable gauges
 Taylor’s Principle of Gauge Design:
• 1. “Go gauges should be designed to check the Maximum Metal
Limit (MML) while the NO GO gauge should be designed to check
the Least Metal Limit (LML).”
• GO plug gauge should correspond to LL of Hole.
• NOGO plug gauge should correspond to UL of Hole.
• GO snap gauge should correspond to UL of shaft.
• NOGO snap gauge should correspond to LL of shaft.
• The difference between the GO and NOGO plug gauge as well as the
difference in size between GO and NOGO snap Gauge is
approximately equal to the work tolerance.
• 2. “GO gauges should check all the related dimensions (Roundness,
size, location, straightness etc).
• NOGO gauges should check only one element of the dimension at a
time.”
For
hole

For
shaft
First system
Second system
Fundamental Deviation
Numerical 1
 Selective Assembly
In selective assembly components produced are
classified into groups according to their sizes by
automatic gauging. This is done for both Holes
and Shafts and then corresponding parts will be
matched properly.
It reduces chance of defective assembly and also
the cost of assembly as parts may be produced
in wider tolerances.
• Ex: Assembly of piston with cylinder bores.
Determine dimension for G and 20g8.
Determine dimension for Q and 40f7.
Reference

1. R.K. Jain: Engineering Metrology, Khanna

Publication
2. J.F.W. Galyer and Charles Shotbolt: Metrology for
Engineers, CRC Press
3. I.C. Gupta: Engineering Metrology, Dhanpatrai
Publication
4. D. Chandrashekaraiah: Mechanical Measurements
and Metrology
5. Engineering:Johansson Mikrokator - HandWiki
QUESTIONS
THANK YOU