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20ME901 – AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING

Department: Mechanical Engineering

Batch/Year: Mechanical/III
Created by: Dr. R.Suresh Kumar
Date:25.07.2022
 Table of Contents

S.NO CONTENTS PAGE NO

1 Course Objectives 06

2 Pre Requisites 07

3 Syllabus 08

4 Course outcomes 10

5 CO- PO/PSO Mapping 11

6 Lecture Plan 12

7 Activity based learning 13

8 Lecture Notes 16

9 Assignments 68

10 Part A Q & A 71

11 Part B Qs 76

12 Supportive online Certification courses 78

13 Real time Applications in day to day life and to Industry 79

14 Contents beyond the Syllabus 82

15 Assessment Schedule 84

16 Prescribed Text Books & Reference Books 85

17 Mini Project suggestions 86

 Course Objectives

Explain the vehicle construction, aerodynamics and working

principle of various parts of an IC Engine.

Describe an Electronic Engine Management system.

Explain the working principle of various parts of Transmission

systems.

Discuss the construction and working principle of steering, brakes

and suspension systems.

Distinguish the construction and working principle of Hybrid

vehicle, E-vehicle and Autonomous vehicle.
 Pre Requisites

MODE OF DELIVERY: ASSESSMENT COMPONENTS:

MD 1. Oral presentation AC 1. Unit Test
MD 2. Tutorial AC 2. Assignment
MD 3.Course Seminar AC 3. Internal Assessment Exam
AC 4.Model Examination
20ME901 AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING LTPC 3003
OBJECTIVES:
Explain the vehicle construction, aerodynamics and working principle of various parts of
an IC Engine.
Describe an Electronic Engine Management system.
Explain the working principle of various parts of Transmission systems.
Discuss the construction and working principle of steering, brakes and suspension
systems.
Distinguish the construction and working principle of Hybrid vehicle, E-vehicle and
Autonomous vehicle.

UNIT I VEHICLE STRUCTURE AND ENGINES 9

Types of automobiles vehicle construction and different layouts, chassis, frame and

body, Vehicle aerodynamics (various resistances and moments involved), IC engines

–components-functions and materials, variable valve timing (VVT).

UNIT II ENGINE AUXILIARY SYSTEMS 9

Electronically controlled gasoline injection system for SI engines, Electronically

controlled diesel injection system (Unit injector system, Rotary distributor type and

common rail direct injection system), Electronic ignition system (Transistorized coil

ignition system, capacitive discharge ignition system), Turbo chargers (WGT, VGT),

Engine emission control by three way catalytic converter system, Emission norms

(BS -VI). AUTOTRONICS: An overview of basic electrical components and circuits

in an automobile - overview of vehicle electronic systems.

UNIT III TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS 9

Clutch-types and construction, gear boxes- manual and automatic, gear shift

mechanisms, Over drive, transfer box, fluid flywheel, torque converter, propeller

shaft, slip joints, universal joints, Differential and rear axle, Hotchkiss Drive and

Torque Tube Drive.

UNIT IV STEERING, BRAKES AND SUSPENSION SYSTEMS 9

Steering geometry and types of steering gear box-Power Steering, Types of Front

Axle, Types of Suspension Systems, Pneumatic and Hydraulic Braking Systems,

Antilock Braking System (ABS), electronic brake force distribution (EBD) and Traction

Control.
UNIT V ALTERNATIVE ENERGY SOURCES & ADVANCES IN AUTOMOBILE

ENGINEERING 9

Use of Natural Gas, Liquefied Petroleum Gas, Bio-diesel, Bio-ethanol, Gasohol and

Hydrogen in Automobiles- Engine modifications required –Performance, Combustion

and Emission Characteristics of SI and CI engines with these alternate fuels - Electric

and Hybrid Vehicles, Fuel Cell. Introduction about Connected Vehicles – The Future

of Transportation, Future of Autonomous Vehicles - ADAS – Safe and efficient drive,

IoT Enhanced Mobility.

Note: Practical Training in dismantling and assembling of Engine parts and Transmission
Systems should be given to the students.

TOTAL: 45 PERIODS

OUTCOMES:

Upon the completion of this course the students will be able to

CO1 Recognize the various parts of the automobile and their functions and

materials.

CO2 Discuss the engine auxiliary systems and engine emission control.

CO3 Distinguish the working of different types of transmission systems.

CO4 Explain the Steering, Brakes and Suspension Systems.

CO5 Predict possible alternate sources of energy for IC Engines.

CO6 Explain the upcoming technology related to E – Vehicle and Autonomous

vehicle.

TEXT BOOKS:

1. Jain K.K. and Asthana .R.B, “Automobile Engineering” Tata McGraw Hill Publishers,
New Delhi, 2002.

2. Kirpal Singh, “Automobile Engineering”, Vol 1 & 2, Seventh Edition, Standard

Publishers, New Delhi, 13th Edition 2014.

3. Rajput R.K., A Text book of Automobile Engineering, 2nd Edition, Laxmi Publication,
New Delhi, 2014.
REFERENCES:
1.Ganesan V. “Internal Combustion Engines”, Third Edition, Tata McGraw-Hill, 2012.
2.Heinz Heisler, “Advanced Engine Technology,” SAE International Publications USA,
1998.
3.Joseph Heitner, “Automotive Mechanics,” Second Edition, East-West Press, 1999.
4.Martin W, Stockel and Martin T Stockle , “Automotive Mechanics Fundamentals,”
The Good heart - Will Cox Company Inc, USA ,1978.
5. Newton ,Steeds and Garet, “Motor Vehicles”, Butterworth Publishers,1989.
6.nptel.ac.in/courses/125106002/
7.nptel.ac.in/courses/108103009/module2/lec4/1.html
8. nptel.ac.in/courses/112104033/39
9. nptel.ac.in/courses/112104033/pdf_lecture/lecture40.pdf

Course outcomes
After successful completion of the course, the students should
be able to

Highest
CO No. Course Outcomes Cognitive
Level

Recognize the various parts of the automobile and their

C303.1 K2
functions and materials.
Discuss the engine auxiliary systems and engine
C303.2 K2
emission control.
Distinguish the working of different types of
C303.3 K2
transmission systems.

C303.4 Explain the Steering, Brakes and Suspension Systems. K2

Predict possible alternate sources of energy for IC

C303.5 K2
Engines.
Explain the upcoming technology related to E – Vehicle
C303.6 K2
and Autonomous vehicle.
 CO- PO/PSO Mapping

Program Specific
Program Outcomes Outcomes

Cours K3,
K3 K4 K4 K5 A3 A2 A3 A3 A3 A3 A2 K4 K4 K4
e Out Level K5, K6
Come of CO

s
PO-1 PO-2 PO-3 PO-4 PO-5 PO-6 PO-7 PO-8 PO-9 PO-10 PO-11 PO-12 PSO-1 PSO-2 PSO-3

K2                  
C303. 2 2 2
1 1   1
K2                    
C303. 2 2
2 1   1
K2 2       2         2    
C303.
3 1   1
K2                    
C303. 2 2
4     1
K2 2 1               2    
C303.
5 1   1
K3 2 1 1             2    
C303.
6 1   1
           
C303   2 1 1 2 2 2
1   1
 LecturePlan
.
UNIT – I VEHICLE STRUCTURE AND ENGINES
S.N Topic No. of Propos Actual pertai Taxon Mode
o Perio ed Lecture ning omy of
ds date Date CO level Deliver
y

1 Types of automobiles 1 CO1 K2 MD1

2 vehicle construction 1 CO1 K2 MD1

and different layouts

3 chassis and 1 CO1 K2 MD1

types
4 Frame and 1 CO1 K2 MD1

types
5 Body and types 1 CO1 K2 MD1

6 Vehicle aerodynamics 1 CO1 K2 MD1

(various resistances
and moments
involved),
7 IC engines – 1 CO1 K2 MD1
components-functions
and materials,

8 IC engines – 1 CO1 K2 MD1

components-functions
and materials,
9 variable valve timing 1 CO1 K2 MD1
(VVT).
Activity Based Learning
Cross word puzzle - Small Engine Parts
Cross word puzzle - Solution
UNIT – I VEHICLE STRUCTURE AND ENGINES
 VEHICLE STRUCTURE AND ENGINES

Introduction:

Automobile engineering is an applied science that includes elements of Mechanicalengineering, Electrical

engineering, Electronic Engineering, Software Engineering and Safety engineering as applied to the design,
manufacture and operation of automobiles, buses and trucks and their respective engineering subsystems.

The word automobile comes, via the French automobile, from the Ancient Greek word (autos, "self") and
the Latin mobiles ("movable"); meaning a vehicle that moves itself, rather than being pulled or pushed by a
separate animal or another vehicle. The alternative name car is believed to originate from the Latin word carrus or
carrum ("wheeled vehicle)

What is an Automobile?

The automobile is a self propelled vehicle that travels on land. It usually has four wheels. An engine
provides the power to move the vehicle. As the name implies, it is a mobile or moving power unit on road. Self-
propelled means unit which contains its own power source, necessary for moving, within itself .As a vehicle ,it is
used for transportation of passenger and goods.

1.1. INTRODUCTION

Transportation has become unavoidable for the social and economic development of mankind. Men
animals and various goods are transported from one place to another by different modes of transport.

1. Water transport such as ships, boats, hovercrafts.

2. Air transport such as aero planes, helicopters.

3. Space transport such as space crafts.

4. Land transport such as railways, roadways.

Road transport is most popular mode of traveling and transportation and accounts for nearly 70% of all
modes of transport available.
 Motor vehicle is a self-propelling unit which carries the passengers or goods and ply on
the road surface. The motor vehicle or automobile or auto vehicle is driven by an
internal combustion engine or a prime mover operated by combustion of a fuel or
electricity or a battery. There is a wide range of automobiles designed for specific duty.
The two-wheeler mopeds, scooters, motor-cycle are used by individuals, four-wheeler
cars and jeeps are family vehicles, vans (minibus) and buses serve the society by
transporting people, trucks are required for carrying goods, tractors are field vehicles,
bulldozers are used in construction work and gun-carriage is involved in military
operations. The automobile has created a new revolution in the history of mankind. The
modern age is called “auto age” as the impact of the society has been very profound.
1.2. HISTORY OF AUTOMOBILE DEVELOPMENT

The history of automobile development an growth is very fascinating. It runs together

with the history of development of engines. This can studied as under.
1.2.1. European Development

The awn of automobile history dates back to 1770 when a Frenchman, Nicholas Carnot,
built the first road vehicle propelled by its own power. The French artillery officer built a
three-wheeler steam tractor for handling a canon. It could work for 15 minutes only and
attained a sped of about 2.5 mph.

The automobile or the car as we now today evolved from the horse-drawn carriage, and
perhaps the 19th century tricycle; but as the years went by it gradually lost its likeness
to any of its progenitors. The saga of the car really began as recently as 1860, when
Jean Etienne Lenoir, a Belgian inventor, built the first practicable gas engine. Etienne’s
engine was fed on a mixture of coal gas and air and no compression meant that it was
not efficient.

The next significant development came in 1876 when Count Nikolous Otto, a German
engineer, successfully applied the four- stroke principle which enabled the charge to be
compressed with significantly better performance. At about the same time petrol came
to substitute the coal gas. During the 1880’s Germany was the hub of automobile
development with Gottlieb Daimler and Carl Benz at the helms of affairs. They were
building their cars for sale in 1886. The engine was placed in the front of the chassis,
hooked up to a sliding gear transmission, brake pedal, clutch and acceleration were
incorporated. By the turn of the century, designers began increasing the number of the
cylinder and a prototype in-line 6-cylinder engine appeared in 1902. The design
improvement awakened the public to the next six years, production and sale of these
vehicles became a business.
 The early 1920’s saw the beginning of a period of gradual change and refinement
in automobile design. The spark ignition engine was the power plant of motor
vehicle and kicked out steam and electrical rivals. Water-cooled engine were
almost certain. The engine were located in the front of the chassis. The poppet
valve was used in every engine design. Major improvements have been made in
every car feature. The main design requirements emphasized on production of
reliable vehicles to function at all times under all condition which would be
increasingly comfortable to ride in and easy to operate.

1.2.2. American Development

When Europe was struggling to make his vehicle run, came the period, in which the
development of mass-production methods permitting lower prices played a
dominant role in America. In 1908 Ford started off his Model T with an initial run
of 2,000 vehicles, an output unheard of at that time. Ever since, the correlation of
design and production efficiency has influenced the trend of modern vehicle
construction and popularized the use of automobiles. The life of tyres has been
increased, independent front-wheel suspension has been introduced; four-wheel
hydraulic brakes have been incorporated, the higher compression ralios and
availability of new materials have helped to enhance power-weight ratio.

Substantial progress has been made after the second world war in every car feature
such as reliability and safety, ease and comfort, economy of operation, pleasing
appearance. Safety and exhaust emission were the additional features. Research
and development continue to produce computer controlled vehicles powered with
nuclear engines and fuel cells.

1.2.3. Indian Development

At the end of 1900, the cars arrived in India and were used by Britishers and Kings
of states. In pre-Independent India, cars were imported and it was only in 1946,
Hindustan Motors was set up in Calcutta. It was followed by Premier Automobiles
in 1947 to produce cars and Mahindra and Mahindra in 1949 to produce jeeps in
Bombay. Standard Motors was established in Madras in 1950. The industrial giant,
Tata introduced a plant for the manufacture was started in India with foreign
collaborations and as such could not contribute much to improve the design and
manufacture of new cars.
The production of all the cars was far below the nation’s demand. Maruti Udyog Limited
was emphasized in 1982 in collaboration with Suzuki of Japan to manufacture small cars. It
has helped to automobiles the country. New models have been introduced by various
companies in recent years which have the latest features and machines available for all
income group of the country’s population. The details of Indian automobile manufactures
and specifications of their motor vehicles are listed in Appendix I.
1.3. VEHICLE OPERATION

There is a wide variety of motor vehicles but most of them perform their function in almost
identical manner.

1. Rolling of Crankshaft

The driver turns on an ignition and starter switch. The battery starts supplying electrical
current to a starting motor. The motor turns a flywheel and the crank shaft which are
interconnected.

2. Running of Engine

The driver pushes the accelerator pedal to control the ate of flow of petrol into a
carburettor. The carburettor helps to mix the petrol and air and prepares combustible
mixture. This mixture is sucked into the engine cylinder and is compressed by the piston.
An electric spark sets fire to the mixture and an explosion takes place. The high pressure
of explosion pushes the piston out and the crankshaft and the engine start running. As the
explosion process is repeated again and again, the crankshaft is disconnected from the
starting motor and is turned continuously by the piston and connecting rod.
3. Transmission of Engine Power to Rear Wheels

Through a clutch, the driver connects the crankshaft to a set of gears (transmission). The
power is thus transmitted from the engine to the rear wheels. By means of a gearshift
lever, the driver shifts the gears of the transmission to suit driving conditions.

In case of vehicles equipped with automatic transmission, the driver selects the drive range
for operation. The clutch and the selection of transmission gears are operated
automatically.
4. Turning a Corner

The gear box is connected to a propeller shaft through a universal joint. As the transmission
gears change, the propeller shaft is set into motion. The other end of propeller shaft is
connected to the rear axle through a set in to motion. The other end of propeller shaft is
connected to the rear axle through a set of bevel gears. The motion is turned at right angles
and thence to the rear wheels which are directly mounted on the rear axle.

The differential which is a set of gears is arranged in the rear axle and permits one rear
wheel to turn faster than the other. This is necessary as and when turning a corner.

5. Control of Vehicle Motion

The motor vehicle is in motion and rolls along the road. The driver controls the direction of
the vehicle by turning the front wheels with the help of a steering gear. The driver is ready
to slow down the vehicle or stop it with the help of a braking system.

6. Distribution of Vehicle weight

The order of the vehicle can experience the jolts by its forward movement and jerks due to
unevenness of the road surface. These jolts and jerks are partially controlled by the spring
mountings of front and rear axles, shock absorbers which dampen out sudden recoils in the
springs, the padding and springs in the vehicle seats. The side swings are decreased by the
chassis cross members and proper distribution of the weight of the chassis and the body
between the front and the rear wheels.

1.4. SYSTEMS OF A VEHICLE

A motor vehicle has to perform meeting complex requirements. The main requirements
expected from a modern automobile can be enumerated as follows:

 1. Reliability and Safety

The vehicle should give long and trouble-free running with maximum safety features

 2. Ease and comfort

It should be easy to operate and park and running should be comfortable, without noise,
vibration, pollution, heat and humidity.

 
3. Economic of operation

It should be cheap, fuel-efficient, maintenance free. Fuel, consumables, spare parts,

labour should be easily available at low cost.

 4. Maneaurability

It should be easy to drive the vehicle inside a city, on the highways and hills.

 5. Appearance

The shape, size and colour should be pleasing. It should need minimum space for
parking. There are a large number of systems and parts used in a modern automobile
to meet the above complex requirements.

Motor vehicles, both passenger and truck, are generally made up of two major
assemblies, i.e., a chassis and a body.

 (a) Chassis: It contains all the major units necessary to propel the vehicle, direct its
motion, stop it and allow it to run over uneven surfaces;

 A vehicle arrangement without body is called chassis (Chassis =Automobile-Body)

(i) The frame

(ii) The engine

(iii) The transmission system

(iv) The wheels and tyre assembly

(v) The suspension system

(vi) The steering system

(vii) The fuel tank

(viii) The electrical system

(ix) The brake system

(x) The engine cooling system

(xi) The auxiliaries

 (b) Body: In some designs, the frame and the body are integrated into a single
welded unit to increase the rigidity of the motor vehicle.
VEHICLE CONSTRUCTION

The automobile consists of two main parts

1.Chassis

2.Body

A vehicle arrangement without body is called chassis.

Various components and systems of the chassis are

1. The power system,

Power units are clutch, gearbox transmission, differential, Rear axle shaft, universal
joint &propeller shaft etc …

2. Running system

Running systems consists brakes, wheels, frame, suspension and steering system

3. Electrical system. 

Electrical system consists of starting circuit, charging circuit, ignition circuit lighting

and horn circuit.  

2. Body

The purpose of the body is to provide accommodation to the driver and the
passenger and to protect them against adverse conditions.
 Chassis and body

1.4.1 Frame

It is rigid structure that forms a Skelton to hold all the major units together. The
engine is mounted in the front of the frame and is connected to the clutch and
transmission to form a compact power assembly. The unit is fastened to the frame
through rubber-cushioned motor mounts to lessen the transfer of engine vibration.
The transmission is connected to the final-drive gears through the propeller shaft and
universal joints. The final-drive gears and differential to the rear wheels revolve inside
the rear-axle housing.

1.4.2 Wheels and Tyres

The wheels and tyres assemblies support the frame and the units mounted on it
through front and rear suspension systems.

1.4.3 Suspension System

The suspension system is made up of springs, shock absorbers and linkage so as to

allow the wheels and tyres to follow the road roughness without excessively raising
the frame and transmitting shock.

1.4.4 Steering System

Some parts of the steering system (steering gear) are bolted to the frame and some
(steering column) connected to the body.

1.4.5 Fuel System

The fuel tank is fastened to the rear of the frame and is connected to the fuel pump
through metal tubes. The exhaust pipe and muffler conducts the poisonous gases
from the engine to the rear of the vehicle.
 1.4.6 Electrical System
It consists of a battery, starting motor, generator and controls along with engine ignition
system (ignition coil, distributor, spark plugs and wires).
1.4.7 Brake System
The complete brake system is incorporated in the chassis. The brake pedal controls a master
cylinder which is connected to brakes on each wheel by oil lines.
1.4.8 Cooling System
A radiator is mounted on the chassis which is connected to the engine by rubber hoses to
allow cooling water or coolant to circulate between radiator and engine. Fan, water pump and
fan belt are other parts of the cooling system.
1.4.9 Auxiliaries
Lights, instruments, accessories, etc. are connected to the chassis and are furnished with
electrical energy from battery and generator.
1.5 COMPONENTS OF AN AUTOMOBILE
The main components of an automobile are:
1. The basic structure.
2. The engine.
3. The transmission system.
4. The auxiliaries.
5. The controls.
6. The superstructure.
The items, 1 to 5 constitute automobile chassis.
The main components of an automobile are shown in Fig. 1.1.
1.5.1 The Basic Structure

It consists of the frame, the suspension system, axles, wheels and tyres. It provides support
for other items of automobile.

FIG: 1.1

 
 
1. Frame
There are two distinct forms of construction in common use:
1. The conventional pressed steel frame to which all the mechanical units are
attached and on which the body is superimposed.
2. The integral or frameless construction, in which the body structure combines the
functions of body and frame.
The frameless construction is possible only in the case of closed car, since the roof,
screen pillars and rear panel are essentially load-taking parts of the structure.
The frameless construction has the following advantages over the conventional
framed construction:
(i) Reduced weight and saving in fuel consumption.
(ii) Low manufacturing cost.
(iii) During collision, the body absorbs the shock due to impact and providing safety
to the passengers.
(iv) Lower body position and increased stability of the automobile.
These advantages are accompanied by the following disadvantages also:
(i) Reduction of strength and durability.
(ii) Economical only if frameless construction is adopted in mass production.
(iii) Increased cost of repairs in case of damage to body during accidents.
(iv)Topless cars are difficult to design with the frameless construction.

2. Suspension System
The suspension system connects the body of the vehicle with the wheels and
restricts direct impact of wheels to the chassis and body.
3. Axles
The front and rear axles are beams supported at the ends and subject to the
following loads :
1. The vertical load at the spring centers due to the weight of the vehicle.
2. A fore and aft load at the wheel centre due to driving or banking effort.
3. The torque reactions due to drive or brakes.
4. A side thrust at the radius of the tyre due to centrifugal force when rounding a
curve.
There are three types of live rear axles.
(a) fully floating type.
(b) three-quarter floating type.
(c) semi-floating type
4. Wheels
Wire-spoked wheels have been used mainly on sports cars on account of their light
weight and quickness in changing the wheel. However, the pressed steel wheel has
displaced these for all ordinary purposes. Such a wheel consists of a central flanged
disc pressed into a rolled section rim and retained in position by welding. Light alloy
wheels are currently used in case of luxury and sports cars and are called ‘formula
wheels’.
1.5.2 The Power Plant
The power plant (engine) provides power for propulsion of the vehicle. The power
plant generally consists of an internal combustion engine which may be either a
spart-ignition, or compression-ignition type.
The gas-turbines have also been used successfully in certain cars, though the cost
has been a disadvantage in spite of their better performance compared to I.C.
engines.
1.5.3 The Transmission System
The transmission system consists of a clutch, a gear box (also called transmission)
giving three, four or even five different ratios of torque output to torque input, a
propeller shaft to transmit the torque output from the gear box to the rear axle and
a differential gear to distribute the final torque equally between the driving wheels.
The various components are:
Clutch: Its purpose is to enable the driver to disconnect the drive from the road
wheels instantaneously and to engage to the road wheels gradually while moving
the vehicle from rest.
 FIG 1.2 LAYOUTOF COMPLETE TRANSMISSION SYSTEM OF AN AUTOMOBILE

The main transmission (1) is fitted with a transfer case (2) at its back. The transfer
case (2) is an auxiliary transmission, connected to front differential (3) through a front
drive (propeller) shaft (4) and to rear differential (6) through a rear drive shaft (5). By
shifting to gears in the transfer case by a selector lever (A) the engine power is divided
and transmitted to both front and rear differentials. High speed in transfer case
provides a direct drive i.e. 1:1 ratio and low speed provides a ratio of 2:1.These ratios
help to drive the vehicle on rugged terrain, upgradients muddy and sandy roads without
spinning of wheels.
Gear box (transmission): The gear box or the transmission provides the necessary
leverage variation between the engine and road wheels.

Bevel pinion and crown wheel: They turn the drive round through 90o and also
provide a permanent reduction in speed. The permanent reduction is necessitated
because of the fact that speed of the engine has to be maintained at optimum level at
all times, yet a minimum value of torque has to be made available at the road wheels.

Universal joints: They provide for the relative movement between the engine and
the driving wheels due to flexing of road springs.

Differential: While taking turns, the driving wheels must turn at different speeds.
This is done with the help of differential
1.5.4 The Auxiliaries
The main auxiliary is the electrical equipment. This can be subdivided into four
systems:
1. Supply System-Battery and Dynamo
2. The starter.
3. The ignition system-battery and magneto-ignition.
4. Ancillary devices including:
(a) Driving lights: head-lights, side-lights, tail-lights, number-plate illumination, etc.
(b) Signaling: horn, direction indicators and the brake light.
(c) Other lights: interior roof lights, panel light and reverse light if fitted (this is
switched on automatically when reverse gear is engaged).
(d) Miscellaneous: radio, heater, fans, electric fuel pump, electric windscreen wipers.
1.5.5 The controls

The controls consist of:

1. Steering System.

2. Brakes.

These will be studied later in detail

1.5.6 The Super structure

In those cases, where frameless construction is not adopted, there is a separate

superstructure, i.e. the body attached to the frame. The body performs the functions of
both.

The shape of the body depends upon the ultimate use for which the vehicle is meant.

1. Car Body Styles

(i) Closed Cars

(a) Saloon: Has two or four door, a single compartment with two rows of seats, one at
the front and the other at the rear. There is a separate luggage space at the rear of at
the front.

(b) Hatchback: A saloon with a door at the back is called hatchback.

(c) Coupe: In this type there is only one row of seats for two persons. Only two doors
are provided. An ordinary 'saloon' with roof-line at decreased height is also called coupe
sometimes. The term G.T. (grand touring) added to 'coupe' means a car of performance
which is better than the average.

(d) Limousine: Driving compartment is separated from the rear compartment by a

sliding glass division.

(ii) Open cars

(a) Sports: Has two doors or less, is provided with a collapsible hood, a fold flat
windscreen and removable side-screens.

(b) Convertible: The roof is of soft folding type and windows of special wind-up
design. With these provisions the car may be either open or enclosed.
(iii) Special styles

(a) Estate Car: A saloon car with the passenger roof extended right up to the rear
end. Rear door for loading with rear seats usually collapsible.

(b) Station Wagon: Wood-paneled body in earlier days but now only with a
resembling look over the steel structure. Rear doors and seats for four or five
persons.

2. Transport Vehicles

(i) Van: These are light transport vehicles. There are seats at the front and the
luggage space at the rear. The side doors are usually of sliding type. The rear door is
used for loading or unloading.

(ii) Truck: These are heavy goods commercial vehicles with all the axles attached
to a single frame. Generally twin wheels are fitted on the non-steered axles.
Depending upon the load capacity, there are two or more axles.

(iii) Articulated vehicle: This is also heavy goods vehicle consisting of a tractor
and a semi-trailer. The tractor provides the motive power while the trailer carries the
goods. The two units are connected by means of a fifth-wheel coupling. This type of
vehicle has smaller turning circle than the rigid truck. Moreover, the trailer being
detachable, the tractor can directly move off after reaching with some other trailer
without having to wait for unloading and re-loading. However, in this there is less
traction available. Moreover, steering is more difficult as the trailer wheels do not
follow the same path as the traction wheels.
DIFFERENT BODY SHAPES
(iv) Bus: These are used for carrying large number of people over short distances often
in dense traffic. Not much space for luggage is provided, but there is adequate visibility for
the passengers to know where they have to get down. Usually, there are two doors, the
one at the rear for mounting and one at the front for getting down. Sometimes, the buses
have two floors. Such buses are called double decker buses.

(v) Coach: these are used for transporting passengers over long distances and are,
therefore, provided with luxurious interior with comfortable adjustable seats and amenities
like video.

1.6 CLASSIFICATION OF AUTOMOBILES

There are numerous types of automobiles found in different parts of the world. The
various parameters which can be used for classification of automobiles may be grouped as
follows :

1. Application.

2. Make, capacity and model

3. Engine layout and fuel used

4. Transmission

5. Steering

6. Suspension

7. Wheels and axles

8. Body and number of doors.

1. Application

1. Auto cycles and Mopeds

2. Scooters and Motor Cycles

3. Cars, vans, jeeps, station wagons and pick-ups

4. Buses (Lorries) and trucks

5. Tractors.

2. Capacity

1. Heavy Transportation vehicles (H.T.C.) or Heavy Motor Vehicles : Buses, Coaches,

Trucks, Tractors.

2. Light Transportation Vehicles (L.T.V.) or Light Motor Vehicles : Cars, Jeeps, Scooters,
motor cycles, Mopeds, Vans.
3. Medium Transportation Vehicles (M.T.V.) or Medium Motor Vehicles: Tempo,
Minibus, Pick-ups, Station Wagons.

3. Make and Model

1. Trucks and Buses: Leyland, Tata, Nissan, Shaktiman, Dodge, Bedford.

2. Cars : Ambassador, Standard Herald, Fiat (Premier, President), Maruti 800, Tata
Indica, Hyundai Santro, daewoo Matiz, ford Escort, Opel Astra.

3. Scooters & Motor Cycles : Vespa/Bajaj, Lambretta, Raj Hans, Rajdoot, Royal
Enfield, Priya.

4. Fuel

1. Petrol or gasoline Engine: Most popular fuel for two wheeler vehicles (Motor
cycles, scooters, mopeds, auto-cyles), Cars, Vans, Jeeps and also trucks.

2. Diesel Engines: Most popular fuel for trucks, lorries or buses and other light and
heavy commercial vehicles for goods or passengers.

3. Gases: Liquified Petroleum gas (LPG) or Compressed Natural gas (CNG) are being
substituted into petrol and diesel engines to accomplish better exhaust norms, fuel
price economy.

4. Electric, Hybrid and fuel cell engines: These are engines of the future vehicles and
are in advance stage of development.

5. Basic Engines

1. Internal Combustion Engines: Spark Ignition Reciprocating. Type Engine fired with
gas or petrol; Compression Ignition Piston-Cylinder Engine fired with diesel fuel.

2. Gas Turbine Engine: Rotating type fired with various types of gas and liquid fuels.
These are not very common engines for passenger and goods vehicles and are
presently used in racing cars.

3. Wankel engine: Rotating type Engine. Not very popular due to inherent design
constraints.

4. Batteries and Fuel Cells: Stationary source of power for future vehicles.
6. Number of Engine Cylinders

1. Single Cylinder engines are used for scooters, motor cycles and mopeds.

2. Three or four cylinder engines are used for small cars.

3. Multicylinder engines are used for large cars and all heavy vehicles. The engines may
be placed horizontally (air-cooled motor cycles); vertically (water cooled engines for cars,
jeeps, buses, trucks); angular position of cylinders to accomplish better cooling and
space economy.

7. Transmission

1. Manual transmission or conventional transmission uses various mesh type gear boxes
in India vehicles, achieving three speed, four speed or even five speed. The types of
gears can be selective type, progressive type or planetary type.

2. Semi-automatic type having a two pedal transmission using manual operation of the
standard gear box with automatic clutch control. All modern British vehicles are equipped
with semi-automatic transmission.

3. Automatic Transmission: Fully automatic transmission uses combination of epicyclic

gear trains and torque converters. American vehicles use this type of transmission.

8. Steering or Drive

1. The position of the drive in the vehicle.

(a) Left hand drive: In all American automobiles, the steering is fitted on the left hand
side

(b) Right hand drive: In all Indian automobiles, the steering is fitted on right hand side
when seen from rear to front of the vehicle.

2. The engine is connected to the driving axle.

(a) Front wheel drive: The engine transmits power to the front wheel. The engines is
normally placed at the rear of the vehicle. Examples are Maruti car, Volkswagon car.

(b) Rear wheel drive: The engine supplies power to the rear wheel. The engine is
normally placed at the front of the vehicle. Premier, Ambassador cars.

(c) All wheel drive : The engine transmits power to all the four wheels and engine can be
placed in front or rear of the vehicle. Examples are Jeeps, willys Jeep 4 X 4 Nissan 4 X 4.
9. Suspension

The type of springs or cushions used between wheels and chassis.

1. Conventional: Leaf springs are attached to a rigid beam axle.

2. Independent system: Coil sprints, torsion bar or pneumatic shock absorbers are
attached to each wheel to ensure its dependent vertical movement without any
reaction on the other wheels.

10. Wheels and Axles

1. Two wheelers, e.g., scooters, motor cycles, mopeds.

2. Three wheelers, e.g., tempos, autorishows.

3. Four wheelers, e.g., cars, jeeps, vans, buses, trucks (6 tyres)

4. Six wheelers (10 tyres): Shaktiman and Dodge.

Axles: Dead axles of the vehicle do not rotate and wheels rotate such as horse
drawn wagon.

Live axles are attached to the wheel and both rotate together.

11. Bodies and Number of Doors

1. Closed doors such as saloons, coupe, etc.

2. Open cars like sports car, convertible cars, etc.

3. Special styles such as estate car, station wagon, etc.

The numbers of doors are normally four and in Sedan there are two doors.

1.7. LAYOUT OF CHASSIS

The main parts of and automobile are mounted on the chassis. The layout of these
components on the chassis are different in different types of vehicles, i.e., cars,
jeeps, trucks, buses, etc. The main difference in the layout of this chassis is the
position of the engine.

1 Layout of chassis of a four wheel driven automobile is shown in Fig. 1.3.

 Four wheels driven automobile Fig. 1.3.

1.Layout of chassis with rear wheel drive and engine mounted on the front is shown in fig.
1.4.

2. FRONT ENGINE REAR WHEEL DRIVE FIG 1.4

A typical layout of a car is described below:

The engine is located at the front of the vehicle, followed by a clutch, gear box,
propeller shaft, universals joints, differential, rear axle, etc. The radiator is located in
front of the engine. Various other parts of the vehicle not shown in the layout are
dynamo, horn, steering box, fan, timing gear, carburetor, air filter, gear control,
steering wheel, cylinder, petrol tank, rear axle, front axle. The drive from the gear
box is conveyed through a short shaft to the front universal joint of the propeller
shaft. From the propeller shaft it is conveyed to the rear wheel through a sliding
splined type of joint. The bevel gear of the short shaft is driven by rear universal
joint. This bevel gear meshes with a larger bevel gear which drives the two rear axle
shafts through a differential gear.

1.8. TYPES OF DRIVES OF AUTOMOBILES

Some of the important drives of automobiles may be classified as follows:

1. Front engine - Rear wheel drive

2. Rear engine - Rear wheel drive

3. Front engine - Front wheel drive

4. Four wheel drive

1. Front Engine - Rear Wheel Drive

In this layout a front mounted engine-clutch-gear box unit drives a beam type rear
axle suspended on leaf sprints through a propeller shaft with two universal joints.
With the help of coil sprints, the front wheels are independently sprung. As shown in
Fig. 1.4 this layout is one of the oldest layout which remained unchanged for many
years. some of the advantages provided by this system are :

(a) Balanced weight distribution between the front and the rear wheels.

(b) Easy front wheel steering.

(c) Behind the rear seats, large luggage space is available.

(d) Accessibility to various components like engine, gearbox and rear axle
is better in comparison to other layouts. The control linkages-accelerator, choke,
clutch and gearbox are short and simple.

(e) Full benefits of the natural air stream created by vehicle’s movement is
taken by the forward radiator resulting in reduced power losses from a large fan.

(f) Small length of the propeller shaft permits the angularity of the
universal joints to be small and easily provided by simple types.

By mounting the rear wheel drive assembly on the body unit and using
universally jointed shafts to independently steer rear wheels as shown in Fig. 1.5,
the layout design can be modified and improved. It provides number of benefits like
improved handling, comfort and rear wheel grip as well as reduced unspring weight.
2. Rear engine-Rear wheel drive

This arrangement eliminates the necessity for a propeller shaft when the
engine is mounted adjacent to the driven wheels. The engine-clutch-gear box-final
drive form a single unit in this layout. As shown in Fig. 1.6, to reduce the ‘overhang’
distance between the wheel centres and the front of the engine, the final drive is
generally placed between the clutch and the gear box. In comparison to front wheel
drive it has a simpler drive shaft layout. Further, the weight of rear engine on the
driving wheels provides excellent tranction and grip especially on steep hills as well
as when accelerating. Inspire of the low proportion of the vehicle weight transferring
to the front wheels, very effective rear wheel braking is possible. Due to the absence
of the propeller shaft the obstructed floor space is reduced. The front of the vehicle
can, therefore, be designed for good visibility and smooth air flow. the exhaust
gases, fumes, engine heat and noises are also carried away from the passengers. It
results in compact layout and short car.

The layout also has got certain disadvantages like restricted luggage space
due to narrow front compartment which houses the fuel tank also. Natural air
cooling is not possible, it requires a powerful fan. The floor is further obstructed due
to long linkage required for the engine, clutch and the gear box controls. The
rearward concentration of weight causes the vehicle to be more affected by side
winds at high speeds. this makes the vehicle unstable resulting in over steering and
turning very sharply into a curve. This necessitates the steering correction in the
opposite direction.

3. Front engine-front wheel drive.

This layout provides optimum body-luggage space and a flat floor line
resulting in a transverse longitudinal engine position. This drive pulling the car along
provides good grip and good road holding on curves due to major weight at the
front. The chances of skidding especially on slippery surfaces are very much
reduced. Good road adhesion is provided by the large proportion of the vehicle
weight acting on the driven wheels. when the vehicle is to be ‘steered in’ to the
curve, it provides ‘under steer’ characteristics always preferred by drivers.
The combination of steered and driven wheels with short drive shafts provides the
main disadvantage. This requires special universal joints and a more complicated
assembly. to prevent the rear wheels from skidding under heavy braking, the
‘reduced’ weight at the rear usually necessitates special arrangement.
4. Front wheel steering Rear wheel drive

1. Access to the engine is very easy.

2. Slowing down of the water circulation causing cooling troubles can be avoided
and long hose connections can be saved due to situating of the radiator in the main air
stream.

3. This arrangement helps minimize the linkage between the clutch, gear box
and engine.

4. The angularity of the propeller shaft is kept to minimum and there is no need
of joints due to the shaft length.
Rear Engine-Rear Wheel Drive

Advantages:

1. Better road adhesion preferably on steep hills and while accelerating with
increased weight on the driving wheels.

2. Generally a proportional part of weight of the car is transferred to the front

wheels while braking. Therefore, due to the firm road surface contact maintained by
rear engine car results in assistance to stopping of the vehicle.

3. In this arrangement, front wheels are only for steering purposes.

4. The necessity of the propeller shaft is altogether eliminated due to the

combination of engine, gear box and final drive. This also requires only one common
oil sump.

5. Good visibility and stream lining is provided by proper design of vehicle front.

6. The passengers are kept away from inconveniences like noise, heat and fumes.

Disadvantages:

1. At high speed, the increased weight at the rear end makes the vehicle unstable.

2. To control the engine, clutch and gear box, long linkages are required.

3. The width of the car at the front gets reduced for accommodating the movement
of the steering wheels resulting in reduction of size of the luggage compartment for
given length and with of the car.

4. The wheels get turned too sharply into the curve due to tendency of over-
steering. This necessitates the turning of the steering wheels in the opposite
direction to make correction by the driver.

5. Efficient cooling becomes very difficult to obtain due to screening of the engine by
the vehicle body.
Front Engine - Front Wheel Drive

Advantages:

1. As compared to rear wheel driven car, there is a faster and safer traveling due to
good road holding on curves.

2. Good road adhesion is obtained due to a large part of the vehicle’s weight being
carried on the driving wheels under normal conditions.

3. Under-steer conditions generally preferred by many drivers are promoted by this

type of drive. The car comes back to closer radius if the throttle is released. This
makes the steering wheel to run more in the direction of turn to make it a better
condition.

4. A lower flat floor lines is provided due to dispensing with the propeller shaft
resulting in lowering of centre of gravity.

5. The engine, clutch, gear box and final drive are combined similar to the rear
engine car. This provides a more comfortable drive due to final drive spring.
Disadvantages:

1. Due to the weight of the vehicle moving to the rear, the weight on the driving
wheels is reduced on steep gradients as well as while accelerating.

2. The tractive effort which is most needed on steep gradients and during
accelerating is reduced.

3. This disadvantage becomes more serious on slippery gradients.

4. Under these conditions certain modifications in modern designs have been made
to ensure provision of sufficient traction.

5. Four-wheels drive

To increase maneuverability of the vehicle required to travel on rough unconstructed

roads and tracks another arrangement known as four-wheel drive is provided. due to
all the four wheels getting driven, whole of the weight of the vehicle is available for
traction. But this advantage is not worth the additional cost on good road surfaces.
The system is provided in jeeps which are known as 4 X 4 wheel drive vehicles.
6. Left hand and Right and drives

In different countries, the automobiles are driven on different sides of the road, In United
Kingdom and all the countries, which were once colonies of the British Rule. The vehicles
are driven on the left hand side of the road. In all other countries of the world, normally
vehicles are driven on the right hand side of the road. For better driving control, the vehicle
drivers must be nearer to one another while passing or crossing. Similarly for safety
consideration, the drivers must be in the centre of the road while driving. Therefore, two
types of vehicles are manufactured.

(a) Left hand drive: The steering is fitted on the left hand side of the automobile and
such vehicles are convenient to drive in countries following right hand drive rules, e.g.
U.S.A., Russia, European countries.

(b) Right hand drive: The steering is fitted on the right hand side of the automobile and
such vehicles are convenient to drive in countries following left hand drive rules, e.g. U.K.,
India, and Pakistan. However, though rare, left hand cars also driven in such countries.

Resistances to vehicle motion and need for a gearbox:

High torque is required; when the vehicle is starting from rest, climbing hill or accelerating

Due to variable nature of resistance – load and gradient changes

Engine power should be available over a wide range of road speeds – Transmission or gear
set.

Gear set is enclosed in a metal box – Gear box.

The driving force or tractive effort must be equal to the total resistance to the forces
opposing the motion of a vehicle and keeping at uniform speed.

Moving vehicle has to overcome the following resistances

Air or wind (Ra), b. Gradient (Rg) c. Rolling (Rr)

a. Air or wind resistance:

The aerodynamic drag experienced by the vehicle while moving and depends
upon the frontal area of the vehicle and speed of the vehicle

Air resistance, Ra = ½ ρCdAV2

Where Cd – coefficient of drag, A – Frontal area, ρ – density of air and V – vehicle speed.

 
b. Gradient Resistance:

It depends upon the weight of the vehicle and the steepness or the grade of the
road. Independent of the speed of the vehicle.

 c. Rolling Resistance:

It is the resistance to rolling motion. Factors which affecting the rolling

resistance are mainly the inflation pressure of the tyre and tyre design.

Total resistance, Rt = Ra+Rg+Rr

Rt = W/100 (G+x) + CAV2

Where W – weight of vehicle, V – speed, C – constant G and X – coefficient of gradient

and rolling (R).

P = WV/100 (G+x) + CA V3

Conditions:

Total resistance increases as the gradient of road increases.

Power requirement becomes very high for high speeds

Power available from engine is directly related to the engine torque T and gear box ratio g.

Assuming no loss in transmission, torque available at the wheel, Tw = T x g and produces

the driving force (or) Tractive effort.

The speed of the engine is constant.

To vary the speed of the road wheels relative to the engine, gear box provides no – of
varying ratios – usually three or four gear ratios.

Gear wheels of different sizes are provided for engaging or disengaging them for
transmission of motion and power.

A large gear meshed with small gear will drive small wheel at increased speed or vice –
versa.

Gear ratio = No of teeth on driver gear/No of teeth on driving gear

= Speed of driving shaft/Speed of driven shaft

Typical Gear box ratio in a small car Four – Speed gear box

3.5: 1 in first, 2:1 in second, 1.4:1 in third, 1:1 in top

Engine types
 Internal combustion engines can be classified on any one of the following:

Types of fuel used:

Petrol or gasoline engine
Diesel engine
Gas engine

Cycle of operation:
Otto cycle engine
Diesel cycle engine
Dual combustion cycle or semi – diesel engine

Type of ignition used:

Spark ignition engine
Hot – spot ignition system
Compression ignition system

Method of fuel admission:

Carburettor engine (petrol)
Air injection engine (Diesel)
Airless or solid injection engine (Diesel)

Number of strokes per cycle:

Four stroke engine
Two stroke engine

Arrangement of cylinders:
Vertical engine
Horizontal engine
Radial engine
V- engine
Opposed cylinder engine

Valve location:
Overhead valve engine
Side valve engine

Type of cooling engine:

Air cooled engine
Water cooled engine
Lubrication system:
Wet sump
Dry sump
Pressurised
Speed:
Slow speed engine
High speed engine
Medium speed engine
Method of Governing:
Hit and miss governed engine
Qualitatively governed engine
Quantitatively governed engine
Application
Stationary engine
Automotive engine
Marine engine
Locomotive engine

 One of the classifications of internal combustion engines is by cylinder arrangement;

normally there are four methods by which engine cylinders may be arranged. 1.
Inline, 2. Vee Type, 3. Opposed cylinders, 4. Radial.

 1. Inline

As shown in figure 1.7 the cylinders are arranged side by side in one row. The
cylinder nearest to the radiator is called cylinder number 1.

 
2. Vee – engine

This type is very compact in construction and has a common crankcase. In this
arrangement, the axes of the cylinder are inclined to one another usually at 60º.
While comparing with the Inline Engine. Vee Type engines are shorter. The short
crank shaft is of good rigidity and operated smoothly with high engine speed. A Vee
– Six engines has two rows of three cylinders arranged with radial angle of 60º.

3. Opposed cylinder:

This method is suitable for installation at the rear of the Automobile. As

shown in figure 1.9, the cylinders are arranged in opposite direction with the
common crank shaft and with pins at 180 degrees apart. This arrangement may
have cylinders with horizontal or vertical axis. In the case of opposed pistons type, a
single cylinder houses two pistons with a separate crank shaft. Since the connecting
rod movements are identical, it provides a good mechanical balance, but as the
crank pins are not in the same line, they produce a rocking couple. This couple
produced in either of the directions may tend to swivel the engine horizontally. More
over the main disadvantage of this engine is its longer length and has to be placed
in transverse direction. The vehicle is normally air cooled.
4. Radial engines:

This arrangement is shown in figure 1.10 which consists of a single common crank
shaft in odd number of cylinder. A single crank pin is employed for all the connecting
rods. Because of the odd number of cylinders, uniform firing is obtained
advantageously. The cylinders are generally used for automobile purpose and seven
or nine for Air craft. They are simple, compact and provide high horse power. These
engines are of air cooled type. But they create difficulty in stream line design of the
vehicle.

Classification by valve arrangement:

  Automobile engines are classified mainly into four categories with respect
to the arrangement of valves. This arrangement is known as L.I.F. and T types. The
construction of the cylinder with respect to valves is shown in figure 1.11.

 
 ‘L’ Head Engine:

In this arrangement, both valves are located by the side and operated by a
single camshaft. The combustion chamber and cylinder form an inverted ‘L’.

 ‘I’ Head Engine:

This arrangement is usually called ‘over head valve engine’. In this case the
valves are located in the cylinder head. The valves are normally arranged in a single row.
A single camshaft operates both the valves.

 ‘F’ Head Engine:

This is combination of L and I engines. Inlet valve is in the head and exhaust
valve in the cylinder; both valves are operated by the same camshaft.

  ‘T’ Head Engine:

In this case the arrangement of the valve and cylinder resembles letter ‘T’ valves
are placed on either side of the cylinder. Separate cam shafts are required to operate
them.

 Special types of automobile engines:

1. Square engine

2. Wankel engine

3. Automotive Gas turbine

4. Electric car

5. Hybrid car

 Square Engine

In this type of engine, the length of stroke is equal to the cylinder diameter. In
the normal engines the Stroke/Bore ratio is more than one. In square engines the piston
speeds are lower than that of the corresponding engines of large strokes. The square
engines develop more power with lesser fuel consumption than the larger stroke engines.

 Wankel engine

This engine works on Otto – cycle. But this has a rotary piston of triangular
shape. This has been developed on the basis of the design of FELIX WANKEL of N.S.U.
Germany for commercial purposes. The figure 1.12 shows a simplified construction of
Wankel engine.
This consists of a Epi – trochoidal housing. A three lobe rotor rotates in this housing.
The design and construction is in such a way that the tips of the rotor always remain
in contact with the casing so as to maintain three different chambers. Inlet and
outlet ports are provided as shown in the figure. The housing is surrounded by water
– cooling system. The rotor is having internal teeth and rotates in meshing with the
pinion in an epi – cyclic manner.

Operation:

  The sequence of operation is similar to that of the reciprocating I.C.

engine. It take place in three different chambers which is continuously varying by
the rotation of the lobe. The various positions are shown in the figure 1.13.
In figure 1.13(a) Induction process takes place which is supposed to be complete in
stage – 4 as in figure. 1.13(d) Now, let us consider the side AB in figure 1.13(a) the
compression process starts and it gets completed through the stages 5,6 and 7.

Now, when the side AB forms the chamber as in figure 1.13(d) a spark plug ignite
and start the expansion process which proceeds, through the stages 9 and 10 as
shown figure 1.1.3 (a) and (b). Now consider the side BC again in figure 1.13(c) and
(d). In stages 11 and 12, the exhaust process is being followed. Thus the cycle get
repeated. So one cycle of operation is completed in one revolution of the rotor. It is
to be noted that when a particular side of the lobe is followed for the sequence of
operations, the other two sides different sequence of operations are followed and
similar process also takes place at the same time. Thus one full revolution completes
three Otto-cycles. Therefore it leads to a compact size of the Wankel engine.
 
Advantages of Wankel engine:
 For a given power output, Wankel engine is smaller in size and weight.
Volumetric efficiency is higher.
The balancing is easier as there are no reciprocating parts.
The construction is simpler with lesser number of working parts.
It can operate on low octane petrol with lesser NOx emissions.
With advanced materials Wankel engine is cheaper than I.C. engines.
It is cheaper in construction for mass production.
 
Disadvantages:
 Lesser torque at lower speed
High specific fuel consumption
Possibility of chamber distortion
Lower braking effect
Because of ignition troubles spark plugs are to be changed frequently.
Higher speed range leads to critical design of transmission system.
Chamber sealing problem is a difficult one
It emits exhaust at very high temperature.
 
Engine Constructions

 Construction of an automobile engine

 The main components of an Automobile engine are:

Cylinder block, Cylinder head, Cylinder liner, Piston, Piston rings, Crank
shaft, Cam shaft, Timing gears, Side valves, Overhead, Valves and over head cam
shaft mechanism.

 Cylinder:

A cylinder in an internal combustion engine is the main part in which

combustion takes place. The cylinder has to withstand high temperatures and high
pressures.

 Cylinder block:

This is the main block of the engine. This contains the cylinder and
provides housing for the crank, crank shaft and other engine parts. This is the basic
frame for the engine, the other parts are fitted on it.

 This block contains

Smooth cylinders

Ports or openings for valves and

Passages for cooling water.

 Cylinder head:

This is the top most part of the engine which covers the cylinder. It is
bolted with cylinder block at the top.

Sandwich Gaskets made of soft copper and asbestos sheet are used so
that a gas tight joint is formed. These joints will withstand high pressure and heat
developed in the combustion chambers. This is usually cast as a single piece as
shown in figure 1.14.

The cylinder head provides cavities for valves, injectors or spark plugs, combustion
chamber and bolt holes for the inlet and exhaust manifolds attached to it, with
provision for flow of water.

 
Cylinder liner:

The cylinder may wear out after frequent use. Hence the cylinders have to
be replaced, but this is very costly. Therefore, instead of replacing the complete
cylinder, it is better to fit a parallel sleeve in the block (just like a bush) This sleeve
is know as cylinder liner (refer to the figures – 1.15).

Figure 1.15 (a) Dry liner

 These liners provide suitable wear resisting surfaces with in the cylinders
These are manufactured by centrifugal casting method.
Cylinder liners are of two types,
Dry liner, 2. Wet liner.
Dry liner:

  The dry liner is directly inserted in to the cylinder block. Cooling water is
not in contact with the dry liner. This type of liner is machined very accurately and
pressed into the cylinder block. The outer surface of the liner rests against the
cylinder block.

 
Wet liner:

  In this case cooling water is in direct contact with the outer surface of the
liner, this type of liner is machined only on the inside and the outer surface is in
contact with water. There is a flange at the top of the liner acting as a shoulder by
which it is fixed in the groove made in the cylinder block. At the bottom, synthetic
rubber sealing rings is provided around the liner to prevent water leakage.

These types of liners are generally used in diesel engines. If the size of
the piston have a bore clearance exceed the standard limit both the liner and piston
are to be replaced simultaneously. In case the cylinder bore exceeds the maximum
size limit, the standard size of piston is fitted with installation of a new liner. These
are thicker than dry liners.

 Piston:

  The piston is the main active part of the engine. It has a close fit with the
cylinder. The movement of the piston changes the volume in the cylinder and
provides the combustion space. Generally, the pistons are made up of aluminium
alloy. The aluminium alloy is lightest one and has good heat conduction properties. A
hole is centrally provided insert a pin to connect the small end of the connecting rod.
Circumferential grooves provided on the surface of the piston.
Functions:

1. The piston receives the thrust produced by combustion and transmits the power
to the connecting rod.

2.It reciprocates to cause different strokes.

3.It acts as bearing to the small end of the connecting rod and bears side thrust.

Figure 1.16 Piston

 
The piston diameter is slightly smaller than that of the cylinder. The gap between the
piston and the cylinder wall is known as the piston clearance. This clearance is provided
to avoid seizing of the piston in the cylinder. This clearance also provides the gap for a
film of lubricant between the piston and the cylinder wall. A simple piston is shown in
figure 1.16.

Piston rings:

  These are made of special steel alloys which retain elastic properties at high
temperature. These are circular rings fitted in the circumferential grooves of the piston.
There are two sets of rings. Upper rings are known as compression rings which provide
gas tight seal. This will prevent the leakage of the burnt gases into the casing. The
lower rings are called oil scraper rings. These are provided to remove the oil film from
the engine cylinder and prevent the leakage of oil into the cylinder. Refer figure 1.17.

 Function of piston rings: 

1.Prevention of leakage of gas into the crank case

2.Prevention of lubricating oil film

3.Prevention of lubricant entry into the combustion chamber above the piston head.

4.Removing unnecessary and excessive lubricating oil from cylinder wall.

5.Prevention of carbon deposits and other impurities on the piston head.

6.Easy transmission of heat from piston to cylinder wall.

7.Balancing of side thrust of the piston.

Figure 1.17 Piston ring

 
Connecting rod:

  This is the connecting link between the piston and the crank shaft, as
shown in figure 1.18. By the oscillating movement of the connecting rod,
reciprocating motion of the piston is converted into rotary motion of the crank shaft.
The upper end of the connecting rod is called the small end, which carries the piston
by means of a floating piston called piston pin or gudgeon pin as shown in figure
1.19. The lower end is called the big end of the connecting rod, which connects the
crank shaft through a crank pin.

Crank shaft:

This is the main shaft in the engine as shown in figure 1.21. All the other
working parts are directly or indirectly coupled to it. This converts reciprocating
motion of the piston into rotary motion and then transmits to the clutch. The main
parts of the crank shaft are crank pins, main journal, balance weight and flywheel
flange. Oil holes are drilled for lubrication purpose as shown in figure 1.20. The
crank shaft is made from a steel forging and machined.

 Engine operation:

 Working of four stroke petrol engines:

The four stroke petrol engine works on the Otto cycle. It gives a power
stroke in every set of four strokes of the piston or two revolution of the crank shaft.
The working substance in the petrol engine is petrol vapour and air.

 
The different strokes are explained as below:
1. Suction stroke – Figure 1.31 (a)

The position of the piston and other arrangement are as shown in figure
1.3.1 (a). During this stroke the piston descends and the inlet valve starts opening.
The exhaust valve remains closed. The movement of the piston sucks the mixture
from the carburettor.
 2. Compression stroke- Figure 1.31 (b)

This is shown in figure 1.3.1 (b) during this stroke, the piston moves from
the bottom dead centre to the top dead centre. The inlet and exhaust valves remain
closed. The air fuel mixture sucked in during the suction stroke is compressed. The
heat which is produced by compression helps in combustion. Before the compression
stroke is complete the mixture is ignited by a spark produced by the spark plug.
During this operation external work is being done by the piston. So it is termed as
negative work.

Figure 1.31 Four strokes of petrol engine

 3. Working or power stroke – Figure 1.31 (c)

During this stroke, the piston moves from the top dead centre to the
bottom dead centre. Both the inlet and exhaust valves still remain closed. Because of
the combustion of the fuel air mixture, the burnt combustible mixture expands. This
expansion forces the piston down. Under this impulse, the piston moves downwards
doing useful work. During this power stroke, work is being done on the piston.

 4. Exhaust stroke – Figure 1.31 (d)

Due to the inertia achieved and the crank movement, the piston is made
to travel upwards. During this stroke, the piston moves from the BDC to TDC. Before
the start of the stroke, the exhaust valve starts opening. The products of combustion
escape through the exhaust valve. As the piston reaches near TDC. (slightly before
TDC), the inlet valve will open again for the start of the next cycle. The cycle of
events takes place continuously, thus delivering work.
Working of four stroke diesel engines

The diesel engine, the ignition of the fuel takes place in the compressed air at high
temperature and pressure. The temperature of the compressed air itself is sufficient to ignite
the fine particles of fuel. The various strokes are explained as follows.

 1. Suction stroke – Figure 1.32 (a)

Refer figure 1.32 (a). The piston moves from the top dead centre to the bottom
dead centre. The inlet valve starts opening before the piston is very near to the TDC. Exhaust
valve remains closed. As the piston descends, because of the variation in pressure within the
cylinder and that at atmosphere, air alone is sucked in through the inlet valve, which closes
at the end of the stroke.

 2. Compression stroke – Figure (b)

During this stroke, the piston moves from BDC to TDC, both the valves remaining
closed. The air drawn into the cylinder during the previous stroke is now compressed by the
upward movement of the piston. Because of high compression ratio and high pressure, at the
end of the compression stroke, the temperature with in the cylinder is high enough to ignite
the fuel injected.

 Combustion

When both the valves remain closed, fuel is injected into the compressed air which
is at a very high temperature and pressure. Ignition takes place within a homogenous
mixture formed in the combustion chamber. The combustion reaction forces the piston
downwards.

 3. Power stroke – Figure 1.32 (c)

The expansion of the gas forces the piston downwards. During this stroke, the
piston moves from TDC to BDC. Both the valves remain closed. As the work is done on the
piston, it is termed positive. This is the useful work required. The stroke is completed as the
piston reaches BDC.

 Figure 1.32 Four strokes of diesel engine

 
4. Exhaust stroke – Figure 1.32 (d)

Now the piston moves once again towards TDC. During the start of the
stroke, the exhaust valve starts opening. The upward movement of the piston
removes the remaining gases through the exhaust valve. The exhaust valve closes at
the end of the exhaust stroke. Before the piston reaches TDC, very near to TDC, the
inlet valve will start opening for the next cycle.

 Two stroke engines:

Two stroke engine performs only two strokes to complete the cycle.
Suction stroke and exhaust stroke in a four stroke engine can be eliminated in this
design. Rather they are combined with the working and the compression strokes.
The principle of operation is the same as four stroke engine. There is one working
stroke for every revolution of the crank shaft.

The construction is shown in figure 1.33 (a). It consists of a cylinder

covered at the top and a hermitically sealed crank case at the bottom. Instead of
valves, three ports are provided, on the walls of the cylinder. Exhaust ports is placed
slightly above the inlet port. Another port called transfer port is placed diametrically
opposite, but slightly at a lower level to the exhaust port. Similar to the four stroke
engine, crank shaft, connecting rod, piston, piston rings, piston pin are assembled as
a link.

The crown of the piston is deflected upwards to avoid mixing of fresh mixture with
the exhaust gas and also to help to deflect the fresh mixture upwards (to drive the
exhaust). These engines are air cooled by cooling fins arranged around the outer
surface of the cylinder. Spark plug is screwed on the top of the cylinder head for
petrol engine and a fuel injector in case of a diesel engine.
Working of two stroke petrol engine
 First stroke:

Two stroke petrol engine works on the principle of Otto cycle. The two
stroke petrol engine consist of cylinder and piston arrangement, so that it can function
as a pump in conjunction with the piston. At the beginning of the first stroke let us
assume the piston is in the highest position at the end of the compression stroke.
When the piston is at the top dead centre as in figure 1.33(a), the transfer port and
exhaust port are covered by the bottom portion of the piston. This allows the fresh
mixture of petrol and air to enter beneath the piston. When the piston descends, it
compresses and forces the mixture through the transfer port to the other side of the
piston. The downward movement of the piston will completely close the inlet port as
in figure 1.33 (b). Now first stroke is completed and the position is as that shown in
figure 1.33 (c).
 Second stroke:

The burnt gases still escape through exhaust port. The mixture transferred
into the cylinder drives out the exhaust gases. This driving out of the exhaust gas is
termed as scavenging. Now for the second stroke, the piston starts moving up. When
it closes the transfer port and the exhaust port, the mixture in the cylinder will get
compressed as shown in figure 1.33 (d) and when the piston reaches the top dead
centre the second stroke is completed by completing the compression. At this stage
the spark plug initiates the high intensity spark. Now spark ignition takes place to
carryout the combustion of the mixture. The expansion of the burnt gases will now
push the piston downwards to perform the working (power) stroke. The cycle gets
repeated.

 Working of two stoke diesel engine

Figure 1.34 Two stroke diesel engine

 
First stroke:

Two stroke diesel engine works on the principle of diesel cycle. The two
stroke diesel engines consist of cylinder and piston arrangement, so that it can
function as a pump in conjunction with the piston. At the beginning of the first stroke
let us assume the piston is in the highest position at the end of the compression
stroke. When the piston is at the top dead centre as in figure 1.34(a), the transfer
port and exhaust port are covered by the bottom portion of the piston. This allows the
fresh mixture of petrol and air to enter beneath the piston. When the piston descends,
it compresses and forces the mixture through the transfer port to the other side of the
piston. The downward movement of the piston will completely close the inlet port as
in figure 1.34 (b). Now first stroke is completed and the position is as that shown in
figure 1.34 (c).

Second stroke:

The burnt gases still escape through exhaust port. The air transferred into
the cylinder drives out the exhaust gases. This driving out of the exhaust gas is
termed as scavenging. Now for the second stroke, the piston starts moving up. When
it closes the transfer port and the exhaust port, the mixture in the cylinder will get
compressed as shown in figure 1.34 (d) and when the piston reaches the top dead
centre the second stroke is completed by completing the compression. At this stage
the fuel injector injects the diesel oil into the compressed air in the cylinder in the
form of fine spray. Now compression ignition takes place to carryout the combustion
of the mixture. The expansion of the burnt gases will now push the piston downwards
to perform the working (power) stroke. The cycle gets repeated.

Engine performance

Engine performance refers to the variation of the output over the entire
range of its operation. To have a complete study on engine performance., both the
power and torque characteristics are to be considered. It is obvious that the engine is
an energy conversion device. So the performance also refers to verify how effectively
energy conversion is carried out. Moreover the engine performance study also
indicates the efficiency and specific fuel consumption. Though there are many
variables to be considered, the engine speed, load, air – fuel ratio and mean effective
pressure are the important ones.

 
Performance of an engine:

The working of any mechanism, system or an engine is to be satisfactory

for proper use and to meet the changes in demand of load and other requirements.
Such suitable functioning of the engine is termed to be the performance. This
performance can be tested, whenever required to note down the working condition
and also to determine certain engine characteristics, either by varying the load on
the engine and or speed.

 The performance of the engine can be judged by

1.Indicated power and brake power – Mechanical efficiency

2.Fuel and air ratio – Volumetric efficiency

3.Speed

4.Thermal efficiency and heat balance sheet

5.Exhaust gas analysis

Terminologies

 Indicated power (I.P)

The indicated power of an engine is power developed in the cylinder. It is

measured by a form of pressure indicator connected to the cylinder head.

 Brake power (B.P)

The brake power of an engine is the useful power available at the crank
shaft of the engine for doing external work. This power is less than the actual power
(indicated power) developed in the engine cylinder.

 Frictional power (F.P)

The frictional power of an engine is the power loss in the cylinder and
crankshaft due to friction between moving parts. It is the difference between
indicated power and brake power.

 Specific Fuel Consumption (SFC)

It is the amount of fuel consumed per unit power developed per hour.
Efficiencies

 Mechanical efficiency

It is the ratio of brake horse power to indicated horse power

 Thermal efficiency

It is the ratio of BHP (or IHP) to the heat energy supplied by fuel. It is
called brake thermal efficiency if calculated with BHP and indicated thermal
efficiency if calculated with IHP.

 Volumetric efficiency

It is the ratio of volume of air fuel mixture to the volume swept by the
piston.

 Relative efficiency

It is the ratio of indicated thermal efficiency to the corresponding ideal air

standard efficiency.

 Testing of I.C. Engines

 Purpose of testing an I.C. Engines

1.To determine the information which can not be obtained by calculations

2.To confirm the validity of data used in design

3.To find out the power developed under certain operating conditions

4.To determine the fuel consumption in Kg/hr

5.To determine the quantity of lubricating oil, cooling water required per Whr.

6.To obtain information about the sources of loss.

7.To prepare heat balance sheet.

Load test

The performance characteristics of an engine can be determined by

applying load on it. Normally the engine fitted and used for Agriculture. Automobile,
and Power generations etc. is subjected to varying and flexible loads and sudden
demand. To test the suitability of the engine, on an experimental setup, the engine
is subjected to different applied loads.
The performance characteristics like specific fuel consumption, Brake horse power,
Friction horse power, Indicated horse power and various efficiencies are calculated.

The Load is applied on the engine by any one of the following three methods.

1.Mechanical load

2.Electrical load

3.Hydraulic load.

Materials for frame

The various steels used for conventional pressed frame are mild steel sheet,
carbon steel sheet and nickel alloy steel sheet.

The composition of sheet nickel alloy steel is given as follows:

Carbon – 0.25 to 0.35%

Manganese – 0.35 to 0.75%

Silicon – 0.30% (Maximum)

Nickel – 3%

Phosphorus – 0.05% (Max)

Sulphur – 0.5% (Max)

Materials for body construction

The materials used for construction of various parts of the body are steel,
wood, plastics, toughened glass, aluminium. In earlier days, wooden bodies were used
for construction. But now – a – days, steel is mainly used for body construction because
of low cost and easy to manufacture.

Wooden bodies require a separate steel chassis frame to carry the load. The
body structure was heavy. Further, wooden bodies are flexed considerably and hence
they have short life. Initial cost is also high. Therefore, these bodies become absolute
now – a – days.
Sheet metal is widely used for body construction. It has high stiffness which results
in negligible non – flexing and hence a longer life. Its initial cost is also less.
Aluminium has been used by some manufactures because of its good formability,
light in weight, and more resistance to corrosion qualities. But, its main disadvantage
is lesser stiffness and rigidity.

Present day, plastic bodies are popular. Thermoplastics are quite often
used for many components like boot covers, grills etc., whereas thermosetting
plastics are mainly used for body shells. The most widely used thermosetting plastic
is glass fibre reinforced resin. This material can be moulded to any shape easily.

The resulting structure is of light weight. The latest type of plastics used
for body construction is carbon fibre reinforced plastics. It is stronger than steel and
weightless. But the cost is very high.

Wind screen and window panels are made by toughened glass. As already
mentioned in the previous section, it has a special property when broken, it does not
form sharp edges or pieces. All the broken pieces are in the form of rounded
granules which do not cause injury. There are two different types of safety glasses,
namely, laminated safety glass ad tempered safety glass. Laminated safety glass
consists of two layers of glass bonded together with the help of another inner layer
of vinyl transparent plastic under heat and pressure. When this glass is shattered by
impact, the centre layer of plastic holds the broken pieces of glass together thus not
allowing them to fly. These glasses are generally used for windscreen of the vehicle.

The tempered safety glass is made from a single piece of case – hardened
or heat – treated glass. Initially, it is cut to the required shape and then heat treated
until it become soft. Then it is blasted with cold air to the outer surface to create
tension between inner soft and outer hard surface. Thus it becomes five times
harder than ordinary glass. When it breaks, it will form granular particles which will
not cause injury. These glasses are used to side or rear windows.
Links to Videos:

1.Automobile layout and its types

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HaTO67c7haQ
2. Different types of Automobile Layouts
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rbYRif0Iy0w
3. Chassis frame & Construction
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PjenO8nihaM
4. Frames and its classification
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HyoSJ7c1eJ8
5. Unibody vs Body on Frame 
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=v1T_Vizjido
6. Chassis Frame Construction 
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qfkTVYJIx8Qv
7. Automobile Aerodynamics- What causes the Pressure Drag?
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_pNAM7EkaYw
8. 4 Stroke Engine Working Animation
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Pu7g3uIG6Zo&t=39s
9. 2 Stroke Engine vs 4 Stroke Engine
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hV3LImCslpo
10. 4 Stroke Engine Working Animation
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BXQ27pU3_7E&t=31s
11. Four stroke engine(Animation) working principle
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=48Ndak7Wb64
12. 4 stroke engine animation
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VP13eYbCtAc
13. 4-Stroke Motor Cycle Animation
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=t1G1VWd9B90
14. What is Variable Valve Timing VVT?How VVT Work?
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LpKqjlXk0ZE
15. Wells VVT - 3D Animation
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ttu104p_3Is
Assignments (NPTEL)
1.A heat engine is a device that converts chemical energy in fuel into __________ energy
finally.
 potential
 kinetic
 internal
 electrical
2.An IC engine in which the fuel air mixture is introduced into the combustion chamber at
near atmospheric pressure is called a _______________ engine.
 supercharged
 turbocharged
 pressurized
 naturally aspirated
3.A __________ sleeve is thicker and in direct contact with the coolant.
 wet
 dry
 hot
 cold
4.A  ____________ pin connects the piston to the connecting rod.
 caster
 circlip
 gudgeon
 snap
5.Twice the crankshaft _____________ is equal to the distance travelled by the piston in
one stroke.
 offset
 length
 width
 thickness
6.The ___________ valve is used to remove the products of combustion from the cylinder.
 intake
 transfer
 exhaust
 intermediate
7.Let the crankshaft of a 4-stroke IC engine be rotating at 1500 rpm. Then, the time
duration (in ms) of one intake stroke is
 40
 10
 20
 5
8.Valve train noise can be reduced by using a ____________ valve.
 larger
 tappet
 spring loaded
 thicker
9.The main problem encountered with spring return valves at high speed is that of
 valve life
 valve failure
 valve robustness
 valve float
10.Let the crankshaft of a 4-stroke engine be rotating at 2500 rpm. Then, the
camshaft should rotate at
 2500 rpm
 1250 rpm
 5000 rpm
 625 rpm
11.The component that smoothens out the torque variations in the engine output is
the
 crankshaft
 camshaft
 flywheel
 piston
12.The position of the piston when it is nearest to the crankshaft is referred to as
the _____________ dead centre.
 bottom
 top
 near
 far
13.The nominal volume of the combustion chamber when the piston is at TDC is
called as  ____________ volume.
 displacement
 total
 cylinder
 clearance
14.Which one of the following statements is true about the suction stroke in a 4-
stroke IC engine?
 The exhaust valve remains closed.
 The inlet valve remains closed.
 The piston moves away from the BDC.
 The piston moves towards the TDC.
15.Which one of the following statements is true about the compression stroke in a
4-stroke IC engine?
 The exhaust valve remains open.
 The inlet valve remains open.
 The piston moves away from the BDC.
 The piston moves away from the TDC.
 Part A Q & A (with K level and CO)

S.N Question and Answers K Perat

o leve ining
l Co
1. What are the functions of a frame?
 To support the chassis components and thebody. K2 CO1
 To withstand static and dynamic loads without undue deflection
ordistortion.
 To carry the load of the passengers or goods carried in thebody.
2. List out the various materials used in the construction of
chassis frames. K1 CO1
 Low Carbon Steel - 0.18 or 0.20 % carbon content
 High Carbon Steel - 0.25 % carbon content
 Alloy Steel – With alloying elements like Ni &Cr

3. Write down any two main sections of vehicle construction.

1.Chassis construction K2 CO1
2.2. Body construction
4. What are two types of vehicle suspensions?
1.Rigid axle suspension K1 CO1
2.Independent suspension
5. What loads are coming to axle?
 Vertical bending load due to vehicle weight K1 CO1
 Driving torque
 Braking torque
 Side thrust
6. What are the functions of a gearbox?
 It has to provide torque multiplication K1 CO1
 It has to provide neutral position
 It has to provide the means to reverse a vehicle
7. Why you need a gearbox? K2 CO1
When a vehicle is moving on a road, it has to encounter different
resistances depending upon the road surface, vehicle speed and
road gradient. Hence, wheel torque required at road wheels is
different for different operating conditions. To satisfy this
requirement, a gearbox is necessary in a vehicle.
8. Name the different kind of resistances to vehicle emotion. K2 CO1
 Air resistance
 Rolling resistance
 Gradient resistance
 Part A Q & A (with K level and CO)

S.N Question and Answers K Perat

o leve ining
l Co
9. Why is the frame narrow at front?
The frame is narrowed at the front to provide a better steering lock. K1 CO1
This also permits smaller turning radius.

10. List out the various materials used in the construction of

vehicle body K1 CO1
 Wood
 Metals
 Plastics
 Mixed construction of all these materials

11. Why are the side members of the frame upswept at two
places? K2 CO1
The frame is upswept at the rear and front to accommodate the
movement of the axles due to springing. It also keeps the chassis
height low.

12. What is the function of a bumper?

A bumper is the front-most or rear-most part, which is designed to K2 CO1
allow the vehicle to sustain an impact without damage to the
vehicle's safety systems

13. What are the stresses to which the frame members are
subjected to? K1 CO1
 Frame longitudinal members – bending stress
 Frame side members – twisting stress

14. Name few components of engine.

 Cylinder block K2 CO1
 Cylinder head
 Crankcase
 Cylinder
 Piston
 Connecting rod
 Crankshaft
 Camshaft
 Valves
 Spark plug (in the case of petrol engine)
 Fuel injector (in the case of diesel engine)
 Part A Q & A (with K level and CO)

S. Question and Answers K Perat

No leve ining
l Co
15. What are the types of frames?
 Ladder type frame K2 CO1
 Perimeter type frame
 X type frame
 Backbone type frame
16. State the major types of automobiles according to the fuel
used. K2 CO1
 Petrol Engines (SI engines)
 Diesel Engines (CI engines)
 Gas Engines (either SI or CI mode)

17. Classify automobiles with respect to the drive of the

vehicle. K2 CO1
 Front wheel drive
 Rear wheel drive
 All four wheel drive
 Left hand drive
 Right hand drive
18. What is meant by the term Chassis?
A complete vehicle without a body structure is known as Chassis. It K1 CO1
comprises of basic structure, power unit, transmission system,
controls and auxiliaries.
19. How automobiles are classified into different types?
 Based on Make &Model K1 CO1
 Based on Fuel
 Based on Body Style
 Based on No. Of Wheels
 Based on Drive
 Based on Transmission
20. What are the two types of cylinder liners? K1
 Dry liners CO1
 Wet liners
21. What are the functions of piston rings? K1
To provide a gas tight seal between the piston and cylinder liner to CO1
prevent the escape of gases from top side of the piston to the
underside.
 Part A Q & A (with K level and CO)

S.N Question and Answers K Perat

o leve ining
l Co
22. What are the two types of piston rings?
 Compression rings K2 CO1
 Oil rings
23. What are the advantages of air-cooled engines?
 Less weight-power ratio K1 CO1
 Does not require radiator and water pump
 No antifreeze agents required
 No salt and mud deposits in the system
 Air cooled engines are cheaper
24. What are the components of water cooling method?
Water pump, radiator tube, upper tank, lower tank, thermostat K2 CO1
valve etc.
25. State the difference between S.I and C.I engine.
K2 CO1
Parameter SI Engine CI Engine
Type of fuel Petrol Diesel
Compression Ratio Low ( 6 to 10) High (12 to 24)
Operating cycle Otto cycle Diesel or Dual cycle
Thermal efficiency Low High

26. What is clearance volume? And what are its effects? K1 CO1
The volume above the piston, when it reaches TDC is known as
clearance volume. The clearance volume is inversely proportional to
the compression ratio.

27. What is the function of piston, connecting rod, crank shaft and K1 CO1
cylinder head?
 Piston – The piston assembly transfers the force from the power
stroke to the crankshaft
 Connecting rod – converts reciprocating motion of piston into
rotary motion of crankshaft
 Cylinder head – it acts as a top cover to the cylinder block. The
valves are placed in the cylinder head in an overhead valve engine.
S.N Question and Answers K Perat
o leve ining
l Co

28. What is the purpose of cooling system?

The purpose of cooling system is to cool the engine components in K2 CO1
order to keep their temperature below certain limit and thereby
avoiding excessive thermal stress in those components.
29. State the merits and demerits of air cooling system.
Air Cooling K1 CO1
Merits
1. Less weight-power ratio
2. Does not require radiator and water pump
3. No antifreeze agents required
4. No salt and mud deposits in the system
5. These engines are cheaper Demerits
Demerits:
1. Cooling efficiency is lower
2. Non uniform cooling
3. Engines are noisier.
4. Need of blower to blow air over the fins
30. State the merits and demerits of water cooling system.
Water Cooling K2 CO1
Merits:
1. Cooling efficiency is better
2. More uniform cooling
3. Engine operation is silent in nature
4. No need of an blower
Demerits:
1. More number of components like radiator, water pump
2. Antifreeze agents needed (Ethylene Glycol, Methanol)
3. More salt and mud deposition in the system
4. Engines are costlier
31. What is the purpose of lubricating system? State its types.
The purpose of lubrication system is to supply the lubricating oil K2 CO1
between the moving parts of the engine in order to
1. Reduce the friction
2. Provide the cooling effect
3. carry away the deposits formed due to wear and tear
Types: -
 Mist lubrication
 Splash lubrication
 Pressure feed lubrication
 Combined splash & pressure feed lubrication
 Unit –I Part B Qs (with K level and CO)

S.N Question and Answers K Perat

o level ining
Co

1. Draw the layout of an automobile and indicate the various K2 CO1

components.

2. Discuss the principle of operation of a four stroke cycle S.I. K2 CO1

Engine with neat sketch.

3. Explain briefly the construction of an automobile with a neat K2 CO1

layout.

4. Explain briefly the various types of chassis construction with K2 CO1

the help of suitable diagrams.

5. Discuss the aspects considered in the design and construction K2 CO1

of a body
6. Define chassis, frame and body. K2 CO1

7. Explain briefly about structure of passenger car with neat K2 CO1

sketch.
8. Discuss the frame type chassis construction with neat sketch. K2 CO1

9. Explain briefly about the defects in chassis frame. K2 CO1

10. Compare the merits and demerits of a frameless construction K2 CO1

with those of the conventional framed construction.

11. Explain the following terms: K2 CO1

(i)Load distribution in frames,

(ii)Frame types with sketch,
(iii)Frame materials,
(iv)Frame testing
S.N Question and Answers K Perat
o level ining
Co

12. Explain the construction of various frames used in automobiles K2 CO1

with neat sketch.

13. Discuss the various resistances to vehicle motion. K2 CO1

14. Discuss the need of a gear box. K2 CO1

15. Explain in details about vehicle aerodynamics. K2 CO1

16. Explain the followings. Functions of a cooling system? , K2 CO1

Different types of lubrication systems used in automotive

engines.

17. Explain various resistances, forces and moments acting on the K2 CO1
vehicle during motion. Give reasons:
(i)For using single cylinder two stroke petrol engines on two
wheelers
(ii)For using multi cylinder diesel engines in commercial
vehicles

18. Explain in detail about the construction and working of K2 CO1

different engine components with the help of neat sketch?

19. What is VVT? Explain in detail. K2 CO1

 Supportive online Certification courses (NPTEL,
Swayam, Coursera, Udemy, etc.,)

S.NO Link Academy

1 https://onlinecourses.nptel.ac.in/ NPTEL
noc21_de02/preview

2 https://nptel.ac.in/content/ NPTEL
syllabus_pdf/107106088.pdf

3 https://www.udemy.com/course/ UDEMY
automobile-engineering-from-zero-to-
100-for-everyone/?
src=sac&kw=Automobile+engineering
 Real time Applications in day to day life and to Industry

1. Automotive Maintenance System:

Predictive analytics is one of the most startling features of IoT automotive. The
sensors embedded in different components of a car collect data and share it to a
platform. This data is then processed by an algorithm that can analyze the future
outcomes of the component based on its performance.

IoT automotive maintenance system also helps a person to take necessary steps to
prevent its car parts from sudden breakdown. Just like dashboard indicators of a
vehicle, this system alerts the driver about probable malfunctions. However, the
alerts are sent to the driver’s mobile, way before the problem even occurs. This
helps the driver to make cost-effective and time-saving steps to avoid component
failure while driving.

The capabilities of predictive maintenance can be implemented to an individual

vehicle as well as to a fleet. It is really helpful for load-carrying vehicles that travel
for days before reaching their destination. By using the automotive maintenance
system a person can confirm the performance of its vehicle and repair its car parts
before they break.
2. Autonomous Vehicles:
Autonomous vehicles are a hot topic among automobile makers. Various car
manufacturers are trying to develop a fully autonomous car that will assume all driving
functions from the driver. Even though developments have been made in this area, a
fully independent vehicle is still to be developed.

However, semi-autonomous vehicles have been manufactured that partially assists

drivers with driving, braking, parking, and lane changing activities. IoT infused semi-
autonomous cars take on-spot decisions while partly controlling the vehicle operations
to avoid accidents and reduce the load from the driver. Along with different proximity
sensors and cameras, cars are integrated with IoT systems to reduce human error and
make driving more comfortable and safe.
3. In-vehicle Infotainment and Telematics:

In-car Wi-Fi Capabilities powered by 4G LTE connection has enabled telematics features
to IoT based automotive. Telematics refers to the long transmission of computerized
data. By using vehicular telematics a car owner can keep an eagle eye view on its
vehicle even from remote locations.
Through a smartphone-enabled dashboard, car owners can be ensured about its
security, surveillance, and safety at all times. External sensors and cameras keep a
track of the vehicles’ condition and send the data to a mobile application. Telematics
system along with real-time alert system sounds an alarm in the owner’s smartphone if
someone tries to forcefully enter the vehicle without proper access. The smart car
enabled with IoT also calls concerned authorities immediately like ambulance or
firefighters in case of an emergency.
Wi-Fi capabilities have also given rise to smart infotainment systems along with other
smart car features. The owners can connect different equipment like music system and
GPS in a car with their smartphone and operate them distantly. Currently, there are
various in-built and third-party applications that a person can use to connect his vehicle
with mobile.
Voice command accessibility in these application allows a person to play its favorite
music, stream a video, or attend calls without even lifting a finger. The GPS and GNSS
system in the infotainment systems also offers onboard navigation and comprehensive
information about nearby petrol pumps, restaurants, and other points of interests.
Future of Connectivity:

As 4G and the internet of things (IoT) continue their growth, more connected
services and features are made available in vehicles. In the eco-system of connected
mobility, the cars can communicate bidirectionally with a range of other systems
outside their local area network to send digital data to enable remote diagnostics,
vehicle health reports, data-only telematics, access Wi-Fi Hotspots, get turn-by-turn
directions, warn of car health, and directly intervene to prevent breakdowns and also
avert accidents.

India’s connected car market is in nascent stages, yet it is expected to grow by over
20% in the next few years. To get the customers familiarise with connected
features, many OEMs are offering customers with 3 years free subscription. 
Contents beyond the Syllabus ( COE related Value
added courses)

Predictive Technology

Machine learning and predictive technology have a significant impact on the predictive
capabilities of vehicles in the automotive industry. This technology is capable of providing a
highly personal driving experience. You can set up the application preferences and the
infotainment system of your vehicle by using algorithms. Automobiles are also becoming
capable of understanding voice commands and connecting with smart devices. The sensors
can also provide notifications to the owner of the vehicle if there is a need for service. 

Augmented Reality Dashboard

With the use of augmented reality, you can transform your windshield as a screen for
displaying information to the user. The system can show relevant information through the
HUD, such as current weather, speed, gas mileage, RPM, speed, and much more. The
navigation technology with the use of holographic symbols allows drivers to follow directions
without the need for taking their eyes off the road. 
Improving Safety
The use of tiny cameras all over the vehicle allows the driver to check for hidden objects
that are difficult to see for the driver from the driving seat usually. There are tire pressure
sensors, lane change sensors, and collision control sensors that prevent accidents. The use
of an anti-lock braking system and traction control are also allowing drivers to stay in
control of their vehicle while driving. The convergence of customer demands, electrification,
and connectivity is revolutionising the automobile industry to make more technological
changes in the next decade. Vehicles are also beginning to offer internet connection to
passengers allowing up to 7 devices to connect at a time. Innovation and creativity are the
foremost priority of automobile brands to improve customer satisfaction and sales.
Electrification - Blue is the new green:

A total of 6,261 electric passenger vehicles (PVs) were sold in the April-September
2021 period, marking a 234 percent year-on-year (YoY) growth. Increasing battery
efficiency as well as EV charging infrastructure can speed up its adoption. Lithium-
ion battery prices have fallen by 89% over the last decade, reaching a price of
$137/kWh in 2020. The increasing range of EVs should also help alleviate concerns.
Central and several state EV policies, the FAME subsidy and also a new interest from
car buyer will see this segment grow in 2022.

ADAS (Advanced Driver Assist Systems):

Currently, the Indian ADAS market is in its infancy stage and just a small percentage
of premium vehicles is fitted with ADAS features like adaptive cruise control, lane-
keeping assistance, and emergency braking, which fall within the lower levels (1-2)
of driving autonomy classification. 

Looking at the large potential and the need to reduce accident fatalities, many tier 1
have embarked on developing cost-effective sensors, Radar, cameras for ADAS
application. Ministry of Road Transport & Highways is deliberating on making a few
safety-related ADAS features mandatory. For this purpose, regulations regarding
ADAS needs to be set up. From 2022 to 2027, we can see ADAS making major
inroads in Indian vehicles.
 Assessment Schedule ( Proposed Date & Actual Date)
Unit test 1 :
First Internal assessment : 16-09-2022
Unit test II :
Second Internal assessment : 2-11-2022
Model Exam : 1-12-2022
 Prescribed Text Books & Reference Books

TEXT BOOKS:

1. Jain K.K. and Asthana .R.B, “Automobile Engineering” Tata McGraw Hill
Publishers, New Delhi, 2002.

2. Kirpal Singh, “Automobile Engineering”, Vol 1 & 2, Seventh Edition, Standard

Publishers, New Delhi, 13th Edition 2014..

REFERENCES:

1. Ganesan V. “Internal Combustion Engines”, Third Edition, Tata McGraw-Hill, 2012.

2. Heinz Heisler, “Advanced Engine Technology,” SAE International Publications

USA, 1998.

3. Joseph Heitner, “Automotive Mechanics,” Second Edition, East-West Press, 1999.

4. Martin W, Stockel and Martin T Stockle , “Automotive Mechanics Fundamentals,”

The Good heart - Will Cox Company Inc, USA ,1978. 5. Newton ,Steeds and Garet,
“Motor Vehicles”, Butterworth Publishers,1989.
 Mini Project suggestions
 Four wheel steering system
Working model of Hovercraft
Hydrogen (water) Powered vehicle
Over speed indicator and Accident Avoidance systems in a four wheeler
Fabrication of Spark plug testing machine
Automatic Multi-level parking (AMLP)
Automatic Rain Operated Wiper
Integration of Automatic Transmission for AutoRickshaw
Fabrication of Motorized Screw Jack for vehicles.
Fabrication of Solar Car
Fabrication of Electromagnetic braking System For Automobile
Electronic Valve Actuation in Combustion Engine
 Thank you

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