3.

INTEGRAL RELATIONS
FOR A CONTROL VOLUME

1
3.1 PHYSICAL LAWS OF FLUID MECHANICS
Flow problems require the analysis of an arbitrary state
of variable fluid motion defined by
The geometry,
The boundary conditions and
The laws of mechanics.
All the laws of mechanics are written for a system,
which is defined as an arbitrary quantity of mass of
fixed identity.

2
3.1 PHYSICAL LAWS OF FLUID MECHANICS…
1. The first law is the conservation of mass which states that the mass
of a system is conserved and does not change. This law is
mathematically expressed as
msyst=const
dm
or (3.1)  0
dt
2. The second one is Newton’s second law of motion (linear
momentum relation) which states that if the surroundings exert a
net force F on the system, the mass will begin to accelerate.
dV dmV 
(3.2)
F  ma  m 
dt dt

3
3.1 PHYSICAL LAWS OF FLUID MECHANICS…
3. The third law is the angular momentum relation
which can be mathematically expressed as
dH (3.3)
M
dt
4.The energy principle or the first law of
thermodynamics is the fourth physical law applied to a
system.
dQ  dW  dE
Or dQ dW dE (3.4)
 
dt dt dt
4
3.1 PHYSICAL LAWS OF FLUID MECHANICS…
5. Finally, the second law of thermodynamics that relates
entropy change dS to heat added dQ and absolute
temperature T is another physical law important in
fluid mechanics.
dQ (3.5)
dS 
T
The first four laws are much used in fluid mechanics and
will be studied here. These laws are supplemented by
state relations.

5
3.2 THE REYNOLDS TRANSPORT THEOREM
To convert a system analysis to a control-volume
analysis, we must convert our mathematics to apply to
a specific region rather than to individual masses.
This conversion, called the Reynolds transport
theorem, can be applied to all the basic laws.
Now let B be any property of the fluid (energy,
momentum, etc.), and let = dB/dm be the intensive
value or the amount of B per unit mass in any small
portion of the fluid.

6
3.2 THE REYNOLDS TRANSPORT THEOREM …
The total amount of B in the control volume is thus
B CV   βρdv (3.6)
CV
Consider Fig. 3.1 where we have three systems.
We want to relate the rate of change of BCV to the rate
of change of the amount of B in system 2 which
happens to coincide with the control volume at time t.
The time derivative of BCV is defined by the calculus
limit

7
3.2 THE REYNOLDS TRANSPORT THEOREM …
d
BCV   1 BCV t  dt   1 BCV t 
dt dt dt
1 1
 B2 t  dt   βρdV out  βρdV in  B2 t 
dt dt
1 (3.7)
 B2 t  dt   B2 t  βρAv out  βρAv in
dt
By rearranging equation (3.7), the following equation
can be obtained.
d
BSyst     βρdV   βρAv(3.8)
d 
out  βρAv in
dt dt  CV 

8
Fig. 3.1 Example of inflow and outflow as three systems pass through a control volume: (a)
System 2 fills the control volume at time t; (b) at time t + dt system 2 begins to leave and
system 1 enters. 9
3.2 THE REYNOLDS TRANSPORT THEOREM …
This is the one-dimensional Reynolds transport theorem
for a fixed volume. The three terms on the right-hand
side are, respectively,
The rate of change of B within the control volume
The flux of B passing out of the control surface
The flux of B passing into the control surface
If the flow pattern is steady, the first term vanishes.
Equation (3.8) can readily be generalized to an
arbitrary flow pattern, as follows.
d
B   d

 (3.9)
βρdV   βρv.n dA
dt
Syst 
dt  CV 


CS
10
3.2 THE REYNOLDS TRANSPORT THEOREM …
For one dimensional flux terms
βρv.n dA   βρAv out  βρAv in
(3.10)
CS

Fig. 3.2 A control volume with simplified one-dimensional inlets and

exits.
11
3.3 CONSERVATION OF MASS EQUATION
If the property B in the general equation (3.9) is mass m,
B=m = dB/dm=dm/dm=1
And equation (3.9) reduces to
d
m Syst   d   ρdV    ρv.n(3.11)
dA  0
dt dt  CV 
 CS

For non deformable control volume equation (3.11) can

be written as
 ρ  (3.12)
 t dV    ρv.n dA  0
 
 CV  CS

12
3.3 CONSERVATION OF MASS EQUATION…
For one dimensional inlets and outlets,
 ρ  (3.13)
dV   ρ v A   ρ v A   0
  t

  i i i out  i i i in
 CV 
For steady state process, ρ
 0 and equation (3.12)
t
reduces to
(3.14)
 ρv.n dA  0
CS

13
3.3 CONSERVATION OF MASS EQUATION…
For one-dimensional inlets and outlets,
(3.15)
 i i i out  ρi vi Ai in
ρ v A  

For incompressible fluids,

 v i A i out   v(3.16)
i A i in

Q out   Q in

14
3.4 LINEAR MOMENTUM EQUATION
The Reynolds transport theorem, equation (3.9), can be
applied to the Newton’s second law of motion,
equation (3.2).
dv dmv 
 F  ma  m dt  dt
In this equation, B=mv and =dB/dm=v. Then equation
3.9 becomes,
d
B   d  (3.17)
βρdV   βρv.n dA
dt
Syst
 
dt  CV 


CS

d d 
 F  dt mv   dt   vρdV    vρv.n dA

 CV  CS 15
3.4 LINEAR MOMENTUM EQUATION…
Equation (3.17) is a vector equation due to the velocity
term and can be written in its scalar components.
d d 
 Fx  dt mu  dt   udV    uρv.n dA

 CV  CS
d d (3.18)

 Fy  dt mv  dt   vdV    vρv.n dA

 CV  CS
d d 
 Fz  dt m   dt   dV    ρv.n dA

 CV  CS

16
3.4 LINEAR MOMENTUM EQUATION…
For one dimensional inlets and outlets, equation (3.17)
can be written as
d 
 F    vρdV    vρv.n(3.19)
dt  CV
dA
 CS

d   .
  .

   vρdV     m i v i    m i v i 
dt  CV    out   in

The pressure force is a very important surface force

which is computed as,

Fpress   p  p - n dA  (3.20)

CS
a
CS
 p - n dA
gage

17
3.5 ANGULAR MOMENTUM EQUATION
In the case of angular momentum, the variable B of
equation (3.9) is
B  H o  r  v m  β  r  v
d d (3.21) 
  M o  H o     r  vρdV    r  vρv.n dA

dt dt  CV  CS
 
If there are only one-dimensional inlets and exits, the
angular-momentum flux terms evaluated on the
control surface become
 .
r  vρv.n dA   r  v m (3.22)
  .
  r  v m


CS
 
out
 
in

18
3.6 ENERGY EQUATION
As our fourth and final basic law, we apply the Reynolds
transport theorem to the first law of thermodynamics,
equation (3.4). The variable B becomes energy E, and
the energy per unit mass is =dE/dm=e. Equation
(3.4) can then be written for a fixed control volume as
follows:
dQ dW dE d  (3.23)

   
   edV    eρv.n dA
dt dt dt dt  CV  CS

19
3.6 ENERGY EQUATION…
The system energy per unit mass e may be of several
types:
e  eint ernal  ekinetic  e potential  eother
Considering only the first three terms,
^ 1 2 (3.24)
e  u  v  gz
2
The work term also has three parts,
. . . . (3.25)
. . .
W  W shaft  W press  W viscous  W s  W p  W v

20
3.6 ENERGY EQUATION…
The shaft work isolates that portion of the work which is
deliberately done by a machine (pump impeller, fan
blade, piston, etc.) protruding through the control
surface into the control volume.
The pressure work equals the pressure force on a small
surface element dA times the normal velocity
component into the control volume
.
d W p  pdAv n,in  p v.n dA
. (3.26)
 W p   pv.n dA
CS

21
3.6 ENERGY EQUATION…
The shear work due to viscous stresses occurs at the
control surface, the internal work terms again being
self-canceling, and consists of the product of each
viscous stress (one normal and two tangential) and the
respective velocity component
.
W v    τ.vdA (3.27)
CS

22
3.6 ENERGY EQUATION…
For all parts of the control surface which are solid
confining walls, V= 0 from the viscous no-slip
condition; hence the viscous work identically becomes
zero.
For Surface of a machines the viscous work is
contributed by the machine, and so we absorb this
work in the shaft work term.

23
3.6 ENERGY EQUATION…
At an inlet or outlet, the flow is approximately normal
to the element dA and the viscous work is negligible.
If the control surface is a streamtube, the viscous-
work term must be evaluated and retained if shear
stresses are significant along this tube, especially if the
tube is within a boundary layer. But if streamtube is
outside the boundary layer, and viscous work is
negligible.

24
3.6 ENERGY EQUATION…
The pressure work term can be included in to the energy
flux terms and,
. .
 .  d  
(3.28) p
Q W s  W v    edV   e  ρv.n dA
   
  ss dt  CV 
 CS
 

Making use of the relation,

^ p ^
u , equation
h (3.28) can be

written as
. .
 .  d  ^ 1 2  
Q W s  W v      u  v  gz  dV 
  ss dt  CV  2
(3.29) 
^ 1 2 
   h v  gz ρv.n dA
CS
2 

25
 3.6 ENERGY EQUATION…
For one-dimensional inlets and outlets,

^ 1 2  ^ 1 2 . ^ 1 2 .
CS h 2 v  gz ρv.n dA    h 2 v  gz  m out    h 2 v  gz  m in
(3.30)
. . . d  ^ 1 2   ^ 1 2 .
 Q W s  W v     u  v  gz  dV     h v  gz  m out
 
dt  CV  2    2 
^ 1 2 .
  h v  gz  m in
 2 

26
3.6 ENERGY EQUATION…
For steady flow with one inlet (1) and one outlet (2),
equation (3.30) reduces to
. .  ^ 1 2
. .
 ^ 1 2  
Q W s  W v  m  h v  gz    h  v  gz  
 2 2  2 1 
. . .
Q Ws Wv
^ 1 2 (3.31)
 ^ 1 2 
 .  .  .   h  v  gz    h v  gz 
m m m  2 2  2 1
^ 1 2  ^ 1 2 
 q  ws  wv   h v  gz    h  v  gz 
 2 2  2 1
^ 1 2  ^ 1 2 
  h v  gz    h  v  gz   q  ws  wv
 2 1  2 2

27
3.6 ENERGY EQUATION…
Equation (3.31) can be converted to head form by
dividing each term by g.
 ^
2   ^
2 
 p1 u1 v1   p2 u 2 v2  q ws wv
     z1      z 2  
g 2g    g 2g  g g g
   (3.32)
 ^
2   ^
2 
 p1 u1 v1   p2 u 2 v2 
    z1       z 2   hq  hs  hv
 g 2g    g 2g 
   

28
3.6 ENERGY EQUATION…
A very common application of the steady-flow energy
equation is for low-speed flow such as liquid flow in
pipes. For this case equation (3.32) may be written in
the form
2
 p1 v1   p2 v22  ^ ^
  u 2  u1 

   z1      z 2 (3.33)
    hq  hv   hs
 2g    2g   g 


The term in the right hand side second bracket is a

friction head and equation (3.33) can be written as
 p1 v12   p 2 v 22 (3.34)

 γ 
z  
1 
  γz h h
2 h friction pump turbine
 2g   2g 

29
Example 3.1
The open tank in Fig. E3.1 contains water at 20°C and
is being filled through section 1. Assume
incompressible flow. First derive an analytic expression
for the water-level change dh/dt in terms of arbitrary
volume flows (Q1, Q2, Q3) and tank diameter d. Then, if
the water level h is constant, determine the exit
velocity v2 for the given data v1= 3m/s and Q3=0.01m3/s.

30
Example 3.1

Fig. E3.1 31
Solution
Consider a control volume enclosing the tank as
shown below. Since the control volume is deformable
equation (3.11) will be used to solve the problem. For
the control volume, the volume can be written as
d2 d2
dV  π dh   dV   h
4 CV
4
d  d 2 dh
   dV   
dt  CV  4 dt

32
Solution

33
Solution
For incompressible fluid and one-dimensional inlets
and outlets
 ρv.n dA  ρ v A 
CS
i i out   v i A i in 
 ρQ 2  Q1  Q 3 
Then
d  d 2 dh
  ρdV    ρv.n dA  0  ρπ
   ρQ 2  Q1  Q 3   0
dt  CV  CS 4 dt
d 2 dh
 ρπ  ρQ1  Q 3   Q 2 
4 dt
dh 4 Q 1  Q 3   Q 2 
 
dt πd 2
34
Solution
If h is constant,
dh
 0  Q 2  Q1  Q 3
dt
πd 22 πd 12
 v2  v1  Q 3
4 4
2 2
d  4Q 5 4  0.01
 v 2   1  v1  23     3 
 d2  πd 2  7  π  0.07 2
 4.129m/s

35
Example 3.2
For the pipe-flow-reducing section of Fig. E3.2, D1=8
cm, D2=5 cm, and p2= 1atm. All fluids are at 20°C. If
v1=5 m/s and the manometer reading is h= 58 cm,
estimate the total force resisted by the flange bolts.

Fig. E3.2
36
Solution
Let the CV cut through the bolts and through section
2. For the given manometer reading, we may compute
the upstream pressure:
p1  p 2  γ merc  γ water h  132800  9790 0.58  71300pa gage
Now apply conservation of mass to determine the exit
velocity:
d12 d 22
Q1  Q 2  v1  v2
4 4
 v2  12.8m / s

37
Solution
Finally, write the balance of horizontal forces:
.
F x  Fbolts  p1,gage A1  mv 2  v1 
 Fbolts  163N

38
Example 3.3
The pump in Fig. E3.3 creates a 20°C water jet oriented
to travel a maximum horizontal distance. System
friction head losses are 6.5 m. The jet may be
approximated by the trajectory of frictionless particles.
What power must be delivered by the pump?

39
Example 3.3

Fig. E3.3

40
Solution
For maximum travel, the jet must exit at =45°, and the
exit velocity must be
2  9.81 25
v2 sin   2 gz max  v2  0
 31.32m / s
sin 45
The steady flow energy equation for the piping system
may then be evaluated:
 p1 v12   p 2 v 22 
   z1      z 2   h friction  h pump
 γ 2g   γ 2g 
 31.32 2 
0  0  15   0 
  2   6.5  h pump
Or  2  9.81 
 h pump  43.5m

 Ppump  Qh pump  9790   0.05 2  31.31 43.5  26200W
4 41
3.7 BERNOULLI EQUATION
Closely related to the steady-flow energy equation is a
relation between pressure, velocity, and elevation in a
frictionless flow, called the Bernoulli equation.
The Bernoulli equation is very famous and very widely
used, but one should be wary of its restrictions—all
fluids are viscous and thus all flows have friction to
some extent.
To use the Bernoulli equation correctly, one must
confine it to regions of the flow which are nearly
frictionless.

42
3.7 BERNOULLI EQUATION

Fig. 3.3 The Bernoulli equation for frictionless flow along a streamline:
(a) forces and fluxes; (b) net pressure force after uniform subtraction of p.
43
3.7 BERNOULLI EQUATION
Conservation of mass for this elemental control
volume yields
d  . .  .
  dV   m out  m in  0  dV  d m
dt  CV 
 t
.
Where m  ρAv and dV  Ads

Then our desired form of mass conservation is

.
d m  d AV   

Ads (3.35)
t

44
3.7 BERNOULLI EQUATION
Now write the linear-momentum relation in the
streamwise direction:
d   .   .
  v   .

 s dt  
dF   vdV  
  m v  
 out 
 m v 
 in

 t
Ads  d m
 
 
v
 CV 
If we neglect the shear force on the walls (frictionless
flow), the forces are due to pressure and gravity. The
streamwise gravity force is due to the weight
component of the fluid within the control volume:
dFs , grav  dW sin   Ads sin   Adz

45
3.7 BERNOULLI EQUATION
The pressure along the slanted side of the streamtube
has a streamwise component which acts not on A itself
but on the outer ring of area increase dA. The net
pressure force is thus
1
dFs , press  dpdA  dp( A  dA)   Adp
2
Substitute these two force terms into the linear-
momentum relation:
 .
 dFs  Adz  Adp  t v Ads  d (m v)
 v . .
 vAds  Ads  m dv  vd m
t t
46
3.7 BERNOULLI EQUATION
The first and last terms on the right cancel by virtue of
the continuity relation. Divide what remains by ρA
and rearrange into the final desired relation:
v dp
ds   vdv  gdz  0 (3.36)
t 

This is Bernoulli’s equation for unsteady frictionless

flow along a streamline. It is in differential form and
can be integrated between any two points 1 and 2 on
the streamline:
 v  v 2  g(3.37)
2 2
v dp 1 2
 t 
ds  2 1 2 1z  z   0
1 1
2
47
3.7 BERNOULLI EQUATION
For steady V/t =0 incompressible (constant-density)
flow, for which equation (3.37) becomes
p 2  p1 1 2

 
 v2  v12  g z 2  z1   0
2 (3.38)
p1 1 2 p2 1 2
  v1  gz1   v2  gz 2  cons tan t
 2  2

This is the Bernoulli equation for steady frictionless

incompressible flow along a streamline.

48
 3.7 BERNOULLI EQUATION
Some of the conditions where the Bernoulli equation is valid and invalid
are given in Fig. 3.4.

Fig. 3.4 Illustration of regions of validity and invalidity of the Bernoulli

equation: (a) tunnel model, (b) propeller, (c) chimney.
49
Example 3.4
For the container of Fig. E3.4 use Bernoulli’s equation
to derive a formula for the distance X where the free jet
leaving horizontally will strike the floor, as a function
of h and H. For what ratio h/H will X be maximum?
Sketch the three trajectories for h/H= 0.4, 0.5, and 0.6.

50
Example 3.4

Fig. E3.4 51
Solution
The velocity out the hole and the time to fall from hole
to ground are given by
v o  2g(H  h) t fall  2h/g
Then the distance travelled horizontally is
X  v o t fall  2 h(H  h)
Maximum X occurs at h = H/2, or Xmax = H. When h =
0.25H or 0.75H, the jet travels out to X = 0.866H.
These three trajectories are shown in the sketch below.

52
Solution

53