Solar Energy

L2
Effect of temperature on solar cell
• The resistance of the solar cell is a parameter that directly influences
the performance of the solar cell.
• At higher temperatures, more electrons vibrate and generate
resistance to the flow of electrons to the external circuit
• With an increase in temperature, the atoms start vibrating, which
reduces the binding energy
• The reduction in binding energy means that the electrons are less
tightly bound in the valence band and they need a little energy to
jump to the conduction band. This leads to the concept that the
increasing temperature reduces the bandgap of the solar material.
• From the equation, it seems that the open-circuit voltage is directly
proportional to the temperature but in reality, this is not true as
reverse saturation current increases with the increase in temperature
as depicted in the equation
• PN junction diode parameters like reverse saturation current, bias
current, reverse breakdown voltage and barrier voltage are
dependent on temperature.
• Mathematically diode current is given by

• Hence from equation we conclude that the current should decrease

with increase in temperature but exactly opposite occurs there are
two reasons:
1. Rise in temperature generates more electron-hole pair thus
conductivity increases and thus increase in current
2. Increase in reverse saturation current with temperature offsets the
effect of rise in temperature
• Fig. 4.8 shows the P-V curves of the solar cell at different
temperatures. As the temperature is increased from 250 C to 55o C in,
the open-circuit voltage and the maximum power of the solar cell are
reduced.
• Fig. 4.9 shows the I-V curves of the same solar cell at the same
temperatures which also shows the same relation between
temperature and the open-circuit voltage
• The short-circuit current is not affected by temperature variations.
• If an arrangement is made to filter out the radiation having less
energy than the bandgap energy of the semiconductor material, the
temperature of the solar cell can be controlled.
Valence band and conduction band
• Valence and Conduction band are the two different energy levels
separated by a certain amount of energy. The main difference
between the valence band and conduction band is that valence band
specifies the energy level of electrons present in the valence shell of
an atomic structure. As against a conduction band holds those
electrons that are responsible for conduction
Effect of irradiance on solar cell
• Because of the cloudy season and the absence of a solar tracker, the
solar radiation directed to a solar cell is changing
• Early in the morning, the solar cells are not directed toward the sun,
which reduces the solar irradiance falling on the solar cells. Less solar
irradiance means less photo-generated current.
• The equation shows that the photocurrent and the open-circuit
voltage are directly proportional to each other
• Fig. 4.10 shows the PV curves at different solar irradiances.

• At 1000 W/m2, the solar cell generates maximum power

• As solar irradiance is reduced, the power at the output also goes low,
as shown in the figure
• The open-circuit voltage at each solar irradiance level is the same.
• The short-circuit current is directly proportional to the photocurrent
which is directly proportional to the solar irradiance as given in the
equation.
• The figure shows the increase in short-circuit current with an increase
in irradiance and the open-circuit voltage remains the same.
• On comparing the figure 4-10 and figure 4-11 we can say that the
increase in power due to an increase in irradiance is actually because
of the increase in short circuit current.
Series and parallel connection of solar cells
• The parallel connection of solar cells increases the current output
• The series connection increases the voltage output
• Consider a solar cell with Isc of 0.6 A and Voc of 0.4 V. The I-V
characteristic curve of this solar cell is shown in Fig. 4.12.
• For our requirement, if we need more voltages and the same current
we will connect solar cells in series that will increase the voltage level
keeping the current constant.
• If we connect two solar cells with the above mentioned
characteristics in series, the open-circuit voltages of both cells will
add up together to 0.8 V, while the current will sustain at 0.6 A as
shown in Fig. 4.13
• Similarly, for our required application, if we need the same voltages
and increased current we will connect solar cells in parallel, which will
increase the current keeping the voltage constant.
• If we connect two solar cells with the above mentioned
characteristics in parallel, the short-circuit current of both cells will
add up together to 1.2 A, while the open-circuit voltage will sustain at
0.4 Vas shown in Fig. 4.14.
• In contrast to the above two scenarios, if we need more voltage and
more current, we will have to connect the solar cells in series and
parallel combinations
• If we connect two solar cells in series and then connect this series
combination of solar cells with another series combination of solar
cells in parallel, we will have added voltage and added current at the
output. Fig. 4.15 shows the series and parallel combination of solar
cells that increased the open-circuit voltage to 0.8 V and short-circuit
current to 1.2 A.
Example 4.2
• Designing a solar PV system for a solar pump, you as a renewable
energy engineer, determined that you needed to connect the PV
panels in such a way that you get 24 V at the output with 15 A of
current. You are required to connect the solar panels in such a way
that you get the required voltage and current. The panels that you
have are 12 V and 5 A.
• Solution
• As we have solar panels of 12 V each. We will have to connect two such
solar panels in series to get 24 V
• voltage in a single series branch = 12+12

• Now, we have solar panels of 5 A current each. To get 15 A we will have.

To connect three series combinations of solar panels in parallel with each
other to get 15 A.
• current through the circuit = 5+5+5
• Hence, to get the 24 V with 15 A of current at the output, we will have to
connect three parallel branches of two series solar panels, as shown in
• Fig. 4.16.
Solar tracker
• Since the position of the sun in the sky is intermittent, the processes
and the apparatuses that use the sunlight to process their function are
necessary to be directed toward the sun the whole day.
• The solar PV system, solar parabolic trough, solar dish, solar tower, and
ILS are some of the devices where solar trackers are used to properly
function.
• Solar trackers could be single axis or dual axis based on the applications
• In single-axis solar trackers only the east-west path in the sky is
covered, whereas in dual-axis solar trackers the path of the sun, as well
as the tilted angle north-south, is covered.
• The position of the sun in the sky is described by two angles named the
azimuthal angle and the altitude angle
• The vertical line on the Earth’s surface is called the zenith line and the
angle between the zenith line and the line from the Earth’s surface to
the sun is called the zenith angle
• The complementary angle of the zenith angle is called the altitude angle
(h)
• The azimuthal angle (A) is defined as the angular displacement from the
south of the projection of the beam radiation on the horizontal plane
• In normal condition A is zero.
• If A is greater than zero, the direction is toward the west. If it is less than
zero or negative, the direction is east. The defined angles are described
in Fig. 4.17.
Single-axis solar tracker
• In single-axis solar trackers for solar PV, the sun is tracked from east to
west to orient the solar panels toward the sun throughout the day
• In single-axis solar tracker, a motor is used to rotate the panel
mounting structure
• The decision to rotate the motor either toward east or west is taken
by comparing the output of the light-dependent resistors LDRE and
LDRW.
• Fig. 4.18A shows the unequal collection of solar irradiance by the LDRE
and LDRW. LDRE is in shadow getting lower irradiance, whereas LDRW is
getting maximum solar irradiance. So, the solar panel is not directed
toward the sun. To get it oriented toward the sun, it is necessary for
both the LDRs to get equal solar irradiance. Fig. 4.18B shows the LDRs
after tracking when both the LDRs are receiving equal solar irradiance.
• As the solar irradiance falling on the LDR decreases, its resistance is
increased. An LDR is connected to a series resistor and by applying the
voltage dividing rule the voltage across the series resistor is measured
as shown in Fig. 4.19B. This is done for both LDRE and LDRW and the
output voltage is measured. According to the flow chart shown in Fig.
4.19B, the decision is made as to whether to rotate the motor toward
the east or west
Dual-axis solar tracker
• Dual-axis solar trackers are used where more accuracy is required in
directing the solar panels toward the sun. Here the solar panel is
moved in both altitude direction and the zenith angle. The working
principle of the dual axis solar tracker is the same as that of the
single-axis solar tracker. The flow chart of the dual-axis solar tracker is
shown in Fig. 4.20. Here first the path of the sun from east to west is
tracked using a single motor and then the tilt in the north - south
direction is tracked.