191EIE602T INSTRUMENTATION &

CONIROL IN PETROCHEMICAL
INDUSTRIES

Prepared By
NANDINI.K
AP/EIE
 SYLLABUS

UNIT I : INTRODUCTION TO PETROLEUM PROCESSING

Brief survey of petroleum formation-Petroleum exploration- Petroleum production- Petroleum refining and its
methods- Refining capacity and consumption in India -Constituents of Crude Oil- Recovery techniques- Oil - Gas
separation.
UNIT II : CONTROL OF DISTILLATION COLUMN
P and I diagram of petroleum refinery - Atmospheric Distillation of Crude oil - Vacuum Distillation process -
Thermal Conversion process - Control of Distillation Column - Temperature Control -Feed Control - Reflux Control
– Re boiler Control.
UNIT III : CONTROL OF CHEMICAL REACTORS AND DRYERS
Temperature Control, Pressure Control - Control of Dryers - Batch Dryers - Atmospheric and Vacuum Dryers -
Continuous Dryers.
UNIT IV : CONTROL OF HEAT EXCHANGERS AND EVAPORATORS
Variables and Degrees of freedom - Liquid to Liquid Heat Exchangers Steam Heaters - Condensers – Re boilers and
Vaporizers - Cascade Control - Feed forward Control-Types of Evaporators.
UNIT V : CONTROL OF PUMPS
Centrifugal pump: On-Off Level control - Pressure control - Flow control-Throttling control. Rotary pumps: On-Off
pressure control - Reciprocating Pumps: On-Off control and Throttling control - Water Treatment Control:
Chemical Oxidation - Chemical Reduction - Naturalization - Precipitation - Biological control.
COURSE OUTCOMES:
Upon completion of this course, student will be able to:
• Understand the Various petrochemical process and important
parameters to be monitored and controlled.
• Various instruments involved in and the control of
petrochemical process.
• The automation and safety standards of a petrochemical industry.
• Gain the knowledge in the role of instrumentation and control in
industries.
• Analyze the knowledge on various control of pumps.
UNIT I : INTRODUCTION
TOPETROLEUM PROCESSING
• Brief survey of petroleum formation
• Petroleum exploration
• Petroleum production
• Petroleum refining and its methods
• Refining capacity and consumption in India
• Constituents of Crude Oil
• Recovery techniques (Oil - Gas separation)
INTRODUCTION
• Instrumentation is used to monitor and control the process plant in the oil,
gas and petrochemical industries.
• Instrumentation ensures that the plant operates within defined parameters
to produce materials of consistent quality and within the required
specifications.
• It also ensures that the plant is operated safely and acts to correct out of
tolerance operation and to automatically shut down the plant to prevent
hazardous conditions from occurring.
• Instrumentation comprises sensor elements, signal transmitters, controllers,
indicators and alarms, actuated valves, logic circuits and operator interfaces.
• Instrumentation includes sensing devices to measure process parameters such as 
• Pressure
• Temperature
• Liquid Level
• Flow
• Velocity
• Composition
• Density
• Weight
Mechanical and Electrical Parameters such as
• Vibration
• Position
• Power
• Current
• Voltage
• The measured value of a parameter is displayed and recorded locally and/or in
a control room.
• If the measured variable exceeds pre-defined limits an alarm warns the operating
personnel of a potential problem.
• Automatic executive action is taken by the instrumentation to close or
open shutdown valves and dampers, or to trip (stop) pumps and compressors, to
move the plant to a safe condition.
• Correct operation of the petrochemical process plant is achieved through the
action of control loops.
•  These automatically maintain and control the pressure, temperature, liquid level
and flowrate of fluid in vessels and piping.
• Control loops compare the measured value of a parameter on the plant, eg.
pressure, with a pre-determined set point.
• A difference between the measured variable and the set point generates a signal
which modulates the position of a control valve (the final element) to maintain
the measured variable at the set point.
• Valves are actuated by an electric motor, hydraulic fluid or air. For air-
operated control valves, electrical signals from the control system are
converted to an air pressure for the valve actuator in a current/pneumatic
I/P converter.
• Upon loss of pneumatic or hydraulic pressure valves may fail to an open
(FO) or fail to a closed (FC) position.
• Some instrumentation is self actuating.
• For example, pressure regulators maintain a constant pre-set pressure,
and rupture discs and pressure safety valves open at pre-set pressures.
• Instrumentation includes facilities for operating personnel to intervene in
the plant either locally or from a control room.
• Personnel can open or close valves, change set points, start and stop
pumps or compressors, and over-ride shutdown functions (in specific
controlled circumstances such as during start-up).
PETROLEUM FORMATION
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8YHsxXEVB1M
PETROLEUM EXPOLARATION
CRUDE Petroleum delivered from well field

DESALTING Water washing to remove impurities

Distillation to separate by boiling point ranges

REFINING

REFORMING Conversion reactions to alter molecular structures

Mixing to obtain maximum commercial

BLENDING characteristics
 Petroleum Refining
C1-C4
GAS bp < 50 oF

T LIGHT NAPHTHA
C5 - C?
bp 50-200oF

O HEAVY NAPHTHA
C? - C12

W bp 200-400oF

E
C12 - C16
KEROSENE
bp 400-500oF
CRUDE DESALTER FURNACE
R ATM. GAS OIL C15 - C18
bp 500-650oC

> C20
RESIDUUM
bp >650oF

Distillation – separation by boiling point

CRUDE Petroleum delivered from well field

DESALTING Water washing to remove impurities

Distillation to separate by boiling point ranges

REFINING

REFORMING Conversion reactions to alter molecular structures

Mixing to obtain maximum commercial

BLENDING characteristics
 Petroleum Refining
C1-C4
GAS bp < 50 oF

T LIGHT NAPHTHA
C5 - C?
bp 50-200oF

O HEAVY NAPHTHA
C? - C12

W bp 200-400oF

E
C12 - C16
KEROSENE
bp 400-500oF
CRUDE DESALTER FURNACE
R ATM. GAS OIL C15 - C18
bp 500-650oC

> C20
RESIDUUM
bp >650oF

Distillation – separation by boiling point

Constituents of Crude Oil
• Millon metric tons per annum
Recovery of oil and gas
• Petroleum reservoirs usually start with a formation pressure high enough to force crude oil into the well and
sometimes to the surface through the tubing.
• However, since production is invariably accompanied by a decline in reservoir pressure, “primary recovery”
through natural drive soon comes to an end.
• In addition, many oil reservoirs enter production with a formation pressure high enough to push the oil into
the well but not up to the surface through the tubing. In these cases, some means of “artificial lift” must be
installed.
• The most common installation uses a pump at the bottom of the production tubing that is operated by a
motor and a “walking beam” (an arm that rises and falls like a seesaw) on the surface.
• A string of solid metal “sucker rods” connects the walking beam to the piston of the pump.
• Another method, called gas lift, uses gas bubbles to lower the density of the oil, allowing the reservoir
pressure to push it to the surface.
• Usually, the gas is injected down the annulus between the casing and the production tubing and through a
special valve at the bottom of the tubing.
• In a third type of artificial lift, produced oil is forced down the well at high pressure to operate a pump at the
bottom of the well .
• With hydraulic lift systems, crude oil or water is taken from a storage tank
and fed to the surface pump.
• The pressurized fluid is distributed to one or more wellheads.
• For cost-effectiveness, these artificial lift systems are configured to supply
multiple wellheads in a pad arrangement, a configuration where several
wells are drilled near each other.
• As the pressurized fluid passes into the wellhead and into the downhold
pump, a piston pump engages that pushes the produced oil to the surface.
• Hydraulic submersible pumps create an advantage for low-volume
producing reservoirs and low-pressure systems.
• electrical submersible pumps (ESPs) and downhole oil water separators
(DOWS) have improved primary production well life for high-volume
wells.
• ESPs are configured to use centrifugal force to artificially lift oil to the
surface from either vertical or horizontal wells.
• ESPs are useful because they can lift massive volumes of oil. In older
fields, as more water is produced, ESPs are preferred for “pumping off”
the well to permit maximum oil production.
• DOWS provide a method to eliminate the water handling and disposal 
risks associated with primary oil production, by separating oil and gas
from produced water at the bottom of the well.
• Oil and gas are later pumped to the surface while water associated with
the process is reinjected into a disposal zone below the surface.
• With the artificial lift methods described above, oil may be produced
as long as there is enough nearby reservoir pressure to create flow
into the well bore.
• Inevitably, however, a point is reached at which commercial quantities
no longer flow into the well.
• In most cases, less than one-third of the oil originally present can be
produced by naturally occurring reservoir pressure alone.
• In some cases (e.g., where the oil is quite viscous and at shallow
depths), primary production is not economically possible at all.
Secondary recovery: injection of gas or
water
• When a large part of the crude oil in a reservoir cannot be recovered by primary means, a
method for supplying extra energy must be found.
• Most reservoirs have some gas in a miscible state, similar to that of a soda bottled under
pressure before the gas bubbles are released when the cap is opened.
• As the reservoir produces under primary conditions, the solution gas escapes, which lowers
the pressure of the reservoir.
• A “secondary recovery” is required to reenergize or “pressure up” the reservoir. This is
accomplished by injecting gas or water into the reservoir to replace produced fluids and thus
maintain or increase the reservoir pressure.
• When gas alone is injected, it is usually put into the top of the reservoir, where petroleum
 gases normally collect to form a gas cap.
• Gas injection can be a very effective recovery method in reservoirs where the oil is able to
flow freely to the bottom by gravity. 
• An even more widely practiced secondary recovery method is 
waterflooding.
• After being treated to remove any material that might interfere with its
movement in the reservoir, water is injected through some of the wells
in an oil field. It then moves through the formation, pushing oil toward
the remaining production wells.
• The wells to be used for injecting water are usually located in a pattern
that will best push oil toward the production wells.
• Water injection often increases oil recovery to twice that expected
from primary means alone.
• Some oil reservoirs (the East Texas field, for example) are connected to
large, active water reservoirs, or aquifers, in the same formation.
• In such cases it is necessary only to reinject water into the aquifer in
order to help maintain reservoir pressure.
UNIT 2- CONTROL OF DISTILLATION
COLUMN
• P and I diagram of petroleum refinery
• Atmospheric Distillation of Crude oil
• Vacuum Distillation process
• Thermal Conversion process
• Control of Distillation Column
• Temperature Control
• Feed Control
• Reflux Control
• Re boiler Control.
INTRODUCTION
• Petroleum refining process are the chemical engineering processes
and other facilities used in petroleum refineries to transform crude oil
into useful products such as LPG,gasoline or petrol,kerosene ,jet
fuel,diesel oil etc,
Process used in refineries
• Crude oil distillation unit
• Vaccum distillation unit
• Naptha hydrotreater unit
• Catalytic reforming unit
• Alkylation unit
• Isomerization unit
• Distillate hydrotreater unit
• Fluid catalytic unit
• Hydrocracker unit
• Delayed coking and fluid coker units
• The crude oil distillation unit (cdu) is the first processing unit in
virtually all petroleum refineries.
• The CDU distills the incoming crude oil into various fraction of
different boiling ranges ,each of which are then processed .
• The incoming crude oil is pre heated by exchanging heat with some of
the hot, distilled fractions and other streams. It is then distilled to
remove inorganic salts
 DISTILLATION

 Distillation is a process of separating the component substances from a liquid mixture.

 Distillation may result in essentially complete separation or it may be a partial separation that

increases the concentration of selected components of the mixture

 Distillation is a physical separation process and not a chemical reaction.

 ATMOSPHERIC DISTILLATION OF CRUDE OILS
 Distillation of crude oil is typically performed under atmospheric pressure because it operates at

slightly above atmospheric pressure. (101325 Pa (1.01325 bar) )

 The purpose of atmospheric distillation is primary separation of various cuts of hydrocarbons

namely, fuel gases,LPG, naphtha, kerosene, diesel and fuel oil by it’s fractions of different boiling

ranges.

 Petroleum products obtained from the distillation process are light, medium, and heavy distillates

such as naphtha, kerosene, diesel and oil residue where each of which are then processed further in

the other refinery processing units.

 PROCESS OF ATMOSPHERIC DISTILLATION OF CRUDE OILS

PRE- SEPARATION RESIDUE

TREATMENT
PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM OF AN ATMOSPHERIC DISTILLATION UNIT
PRE-TREATMENT

 After desalting the crude oil is pumped

through a series of heat exchangers and its

temperature is raised to about 300-330 ° C by

heat exchanger with product and reflux

streams.

 It is then further heated to about 400 ° C in a

furnace and the vapour is discharged into the

distillation tower
COMPONENTS IN ATMOSPHERIC DISTILLATION

The more volatile component is removed through

contacting the rising vapour with the down-
flowing liquid.

 The hot feed enters the tower.

The more volatile component are stripped from

the descending fluid.
SEPARATION

• Separation occurs in the Atmospheric Distillation Column

• The vapour goes up to the tower to be fractionated into

gas oil which is known as the overhead product.

• The liquid portion of feed goes down to the bottom of the

tower.
 SEPARATION

• The bottom products enters a reboiler where it is vaporized by heat from

the steam coil.

• Vapour is then directed back to the bottom of the tower and non-volatile

leaves the reboiler and passes through a heat exchanger, where it’s heat Is

transferred to the feed to the tower.

• Steam is injected into the column :

• To strip the atmospheric residue of any light hydrocarbon.

• Lowering the boiling point, allowing more hydrocarbons to boil and

go up which will be condensed and withdrawn.

 SEPARATION

 As hot vapours rises from flash zone, through trays up

the column, they are contacted by colder reflux down

the column.

 In over head condenser, vapours are condensed and light

naphtha is returned to the column as reflux

 Reflux is provided by several pump around streams along

the column.
 SEPARATION

 The cooling and condensing of the distillation tower

overhead is provided partially by exchanging heat with

the incoming crude oil and partially by an air-cooled or

water cooled condenser.

 Additional heat is removed from the distillation column

by a pump around system.

SEPARATION

 The fractions removed from the side of the distillation

column at various points between the column top and

bottom are known as side outs.

 Each of the side outs are cooled by exchanging heat with

the incoming crude oil.

 All the fractions are sent to intermediate storage tanks

before being processed further.

EFFECTIVE HEAT TRANSFER IN TOWER
 For effective heat transfer in the tower, contact

between the rising vapours and the falling liquids

should be promoted, where the tower trays serve

this purpose.

 Inside the tower are a series of trays that have

perforations in them and it allows the vapours to

rise.

 The trays typically are constructed with a device called a bubble

cap which will force the vapour to

“bubble” through a layer of collected liquid that is

several inches deep on each tray.

 RESIDUE

• Residue drawn of the bottom may be burned as fuel, processed into lubricating oils, waxes and

bitumen or used as feedstock for cracking units.

• To recover additional heavy distillates from this residue, it may be piped to a second distillation

column where the process is repeated under vacuum distillation.

• This allows heavy hydrocarbons with boiling points of 45 and higher to be separated without

them partly cracking into unwanted products such as coke and gas.
A FRACTIONATING COLUMN
 APPLICATION OF ATMOSPHERIC DISTILLATION UNIT

 Industrial-scale applications
The most widely used industrial applications of distillation are in petroleum refineries, petrochemical, chemical
plants and natural gas processing plants.
 CONCLUSION

 Not to subject Crude Oil to temperatures above 350 because the high molecular weight

components in the crude oil will undergo thermal cracking and form petroleum coke

 Formation of coke will result in plugging the tubes in the furnace and the piping from the

furnace to the distillation column as well as in the column itself.

VACUUM DISTILLATION
 What is distillation?
• A process of separating the component substances from a
liquid mixture by selective evaporation and
condensation.

• Undergoes either complete separation (nearly pure

components) or partial separation

• It’s a physical separation process and not a chemical

reaction.
Vacuum Distillation
• Vacuum distillation is used for compounds that have
high boiling points (above 200°C).

• Such compounds often undergo thermal

decomposition at the temperatures required for their
distillation at atmospheric pressure.

• The boiling point of a compound is lowered

substantially by reducing the applied pressure.
Advantages of Vacuum Distillation

Faster processing time

Effective distillation while keeping the

process under the maximum
temperature of the distillation unit’s
heater

Effective processing of higher boiling

point solvents without igniting them or
causing thermal breakdown
Vacuum distillation is used for:
• Liquids to be distilled that have high atmospheric
boiling points.

• Liquids that chemically change at temperatures near

their atmospheric boiling points.

• To remove solvents from the mixture without

damaging the product.
Laboratory-scale applications
Rotary evaporation
• Used to remove bulk solvents from the liquid being distilled.
• Used by environmental regulatory agencies for determining the
amount of solvents in paint, coatings and inks
• The rotary evaporator rotates the distillation flask to
enhance the distillation.

• Rotating the flask throws up liquid on the walls of the

flask and thus increases the surface area for
evaporation.

• Heat is often applied to the rotating distillation flask

by partially immersing it in a heated bath of water or
oil.

• The vacuum in such systems is generated by a water

aspirator or a vacuum pump of some type.
• Vacuum distillation columns used in oil refineries
have:

10 to 40
Feed rates mmHg of
Diameters Heights ranging up to absolute
ranging up to ranging up to about 25,400 pressure
about 14 about 50 cubic meters increases the
meters (46 meters (164 per day volume of
feet), feet), (160,000 barrels vapor formed
per day). per volume of
liquid distilled.
Vacuum distillation is a part of the refining process that helps to produce
petroleum products out of the heavier oils leftover from atmospheric
distillation.

The end product of Atmospheric distillation, called bottoms, remain at the

bottom of the ADU.

To increase the production of high-value petroleum products, these bottoms are

run through a vacuum distillation column to further refine them.
• Heavies from the atmospheric distillation column are
heated to approximately 400˚C in a fired heater and
fed to the vacuum distillation column where they are
fractionated into light gas oil, heavy gas oil and
vacuum reside.

• The distillation column is under a vacuum, or

significantly less than atmospheric pressure of 760
mmHg.
• Superheated steam is injected with the feed and in the
tower bottom to reduce hydrocarbon partial pressure to 10
mm of mercury or less.

• Lower partial pressure of the hydrocarbons makes it even

more easier for them to be vaporized, thus consuming less
heat energy for the process.

• At low pressures, the boiling point of the ADU bottoms is

low enough that lighter products can vaporize without
cracking, or degrading the oil.
• In distilling the crude oil, it is important not to subject the
crude oil to temperatures above 370 to 380 °C because
the high molecular weight components in the crude oil
will undergo thermal cracking and form petroleum coke.

• The vacuum distillation column internals must provide

good vapor-liquid contact.

• Ensure to maintain a very low pressure increase from the

column top to the column bottom.
Light vacuum gas Oil is sent to a hydrotreater and then to a 'catalytic cracking' unit to
obtain smaller chain hydrocarbons.
• A typical first-phase vacuum tower may produce gas oils,
lubricating oil base stocks, and heavy residual for
propane de-asphalting.

• A second-phase tower operating at lower vacuum may

distill surplus residuum from the atmospheric tower,
which is not used for lube-stock processing, and surplus
residuum from the first vacuum tower not used for de-
asphalting.

• Vacuum towers are typically used to separate catalytic

cracking feedstock from surplus residuum.
Vacuum Distillation Unit (VDU) Process Steps
The reduced crude oil is The reduced crude oil is
pumped through a series of flashed to separate the desired
heat exchangers and a crude fractions. Light vapors rise to
furnace until reaching the the top and heavier
desired temperature (350°C – hydrocarbon liquids fall to the
390°C) bottom.

Steam injection at the bottom

of the column improves the
separation of lighter boiling
components.

Light vapour gases are

The vacuum column uses a
removed at the top of the
series of pump around to
tower, condensed and recycled
maintain temperature at the
back to the column as reflux.
correct level at certain points
Light Naphtha is drawn off
along the tower.
and excess gases sent to flare.
Vacuum Distillation Unit
• Refinery vacuum columns often use distillation trays
only when withdrawing products from the side of the
column.

• The remainder of the column uses packing material

for the vapor-liquid contacting because such packing
has a lower pressure drop than distillation trays.

• This packing material can be either structured sheet

metal or randomly dumped packing such as Raschig
rings.
THERMAL CONVERSION PROCESS

Thermal Cracking
• One of the earliest conversion processes used in the petroleum
industry is the thermal decomposition of higher-boiling materials into
lower-boiling products.
• This process is known as thermal cracking.
• The process was developed in the early 1900s to produce gasoline from
the ‘‘unwanted’’ higher- boiling products of the distillation process.
• However, it was soon learned that the thermal cracking process also
produced a wide slate of products varying from highly volatile gases to
nonvolatile coke.
• The heavier oils produced by cracking are light and heavy gas oils as well as a residual oil which
could also be used as heavy fuel oil.
• Gas oils from catalytic cracking were suitable for domestic and industrial fuel oils or as diesel
fuels when blended with straight-run gas oils.
• The gas oils produced by cracking were also a further important source of gasoline.
• In cracking operation, all of the cracked material is separated into products and may be used as
such.
• However, the gas oils produced by cracking (cracked gas oils) are more resistant to cracking (more
refractory) than gas oils produced by distillation (straight-run gas oils), but could still be cracked to
produce more gasoline.
• The majority of the thermal cracking processes use temperatures of 4558C to 5408C (8508F to
10058F) and pressures of 100 to 1000 psi.
• The feedstock (reduced crude) is preheated by direct exchange with the cracking products in the
fractionating columns.
• Cracked gasoline and heating oil are removed from the upper section of the column.
• Light and heavy distillate fractions are removed from the lower section and are pumped to
separate heaters.
• Higher temperatures are used to crack the more refractory light distillate fraction.
• The streams from the heaters are combined and sent to a soaking chamber where additional time
is provided to complete the cracking reactions.
• The cracked products are then separated in a low-pressure flash chamber, where a heavy fuel oil
is removed as bottoms.
• The remaining cracked products are sent to the fractionating columns.
• Mild cracking conditions, with a low conversion per cycle, favor a high yield of gasoline
components, with low gas and coke production, but the gasoline quality is not high, whereas
more severe conditions give increased gas and coke production and reduced gasoline yield (but of
higher quality).
• With limited conversion per cycle, the heavier residues must be recycled, but these recycled oils
become increasingly refractory upon repeated cracking, and if they are not required as a fuel oil
stock they may be coked to increase gasoline yield or refined by means of a hydrogen process.
• The thermal cracking of higher-boiling petroleum fractions to produce gasoline is now virtually
obsolete.
• Very few new units have been installed since the 1960s and some refineries may still operate the
older cracking units.
 Visbreaking
• Visbreaking (viscosity breaking) is essentially a process of the post-
1940 era and was initially introduced as a mild thermal cracking
operation that could be used to reduce the viscosity of residue to
allow the products to meet fuel oil specifications.
• Alternatively, the visbroken residue could be blended with lighter
product oils to produce fuel oils of acceptable viscosity
• By reducing the viscosity of the residue, Visbreaking reduces the amount of light heating oil that
is required for blending to meet the fuel oil specifications.
• In addition to the major product, fuel oil, material in the gas oil and gasoline boiling range are
produced .

• The gas oil may be used as additional feed for catalytic cracking units , or as heating oil.

• In a typical visbreaking operation, a crude oil residuum is passed through a furnace where it is
heated to a temperature of 480 8 C (895 8 F), under an outlet pressure of about 100 psi.
• The heating coils in the furnace are arranged to provide a soaking section of low heat density ,
where the charge remains until the visbreaking reactions are completed and the cracked
products are then passed into a flash-distillation chamber.
• The overhead material from this chamber is then fractionated to produce a low -quality gasoline
as an overhead product and light gas oil a s bottom.
• The liquid produ cts from the flash chamber are cooled with a gas oil flux and then sent to a
vacuum fractionator.
• This yields a heavy gas oil distillate and a residual tar of reduced viscosity.
 Coking

• Coking is a thermal process for the continuous con version of heavy,

low-grade oils into lighter products.
• Unlike visbreaking, coking involves complete thermal conversion of
the feedstock into volatile products and coke.
• The feedstock is typically a residuum and the products are gases,
naphtha, fuel oil, gas oil, and coke.
• The gas oil may be the major product of a coking operation and serves
primarily as a feedstock for catalytic cracking units .
• For these uses, the coke may require treatment to remove sulfur and
metal impurities.
• After a gap of several years, the recovery of heavy oils, through
secondary recovery techniques from oil sand formations caused a
renewal of interest in these feedstocks in the 1960s and, thereafter,
for coking operations.
• Further, the increasing attention paid to reducing atmospheric
pollution has also served to direct some attention to coking, since the
process not only concentrates pollutants such as feedstock sulfur in
the coke, but also can usually yield volatile products that can be
conveniently desulfurized.
CONTROL OF DISTILLATION COLUMN - TEMPERATURE CONTROL
 

• The temperature of the furnace outlet crude is controlled by controlling

the burning fuel to the furnace.
• The temperature controller is an important part of the control system
design of the crude oil heating furnace.
• The traditional PID control is usually used in temperature control.
• A thermocouple measures the furnace outlet crude oil temperature
and sends the corresponding mV signal to a temperature transmitter.
• The temperature transmitter converts the mV signal into a standard 4-
20mA signal and sends to a PID controller as process variable (PV).
• The PID controller receives the set value (SV) from the operator,3600C.
• The PID controllers calculates the new valve position based (MV) on the
error ( SV – PV) and sends this as a 4-20mA signal to the valve.
• The control valve converts this 4- 20 mA signal into corresponding 3-
15 pis using an I/P converter and moves to the new position.
• As the fuel through the valve varied, the temperature is varied to the
desired point.
• In another variant, the coil outlet temperature of the furnace is
controlled by a cascade control system where the master controller
gets its input signal from the thermocouple from the coil outlet fluid
and a slave controller manipulates the fuel to the furnace.
• In this configuration, the outlet temperature and fuel flow is
controlled.
CONTROL OF DISTILLATION COLUMN -FEED CONTROL
• Control of crude feed means that the flow rate or throughput is maintained at the
desired throughput or flow rate.
• An orifice plate is placed in the pipeline to measure the flow in the pipe through
which crude is pumped.
• Upstream or high pressure (HP) tapping and downstream or low pressure (LP)
tapping across the plate are connected through a DPC transmitter, which delivers a
current signal in relation to the pressure difference (hence relating the flow rate).
• This current signal enters the controller, which is compared with the SP, the
desired flow rate and computes an output signal according to the PID.
• However, the adjustment of the flow rate must be done carefully by smooth SP
adjustment since a change in the SP does not guarantee an immediate response
without fluctuations above and below the SP.
• It will take some time for these fluctuations to subside before a stable response is
achieved.
• For a larger furnaces, where the feed flow rate is high, the furnace has
two or more passes ( inside pipe lines). Such furnaces are equipped
with each pass flow control loops.
CONTROL OF DISTILLATION COLUMN- REFLUX CONTROL

• Control of the liquid level in the reflux drum is essential because a

sufficient level must be maintained to make it pumpable as the
overhead product and as reflux as well.
• At the same time, it must be ensured that the liquid level should not
fill the entire drum and reach the gas lines.
• This control valve is usually an air-to- close valve, i.e., normally open
type, and the controller must be set in the reverse acting mode.
• Thus, as the level goes above the SP, the controller decreases the
signal and opens the valve to release more liquid to maintain the level
and vice versa.
• Water of the condensed steam is settled below the hydrocarbon
liquid level and is drained off through a conical pipe or boot.
• High-level and low-level alarms are also required in case of problems
with the condenser, discharge pump, or column troubles causing
widely fluctuating vaporisation and condensation, or even due to the
effect of a malfunctioning controller.
CONTROL OF DISTILLATION COLUMN - RE BOILER CONTROL

• Reboiler Control is very effective to a distillation column as it prevents

the distillation column from disturbances occurring in the heating
medium.
• Reboiler controls include reboiler temperature control, reboiler level
control, reboiler (compressor)control, reboiler steam flow control,
etc. The most suitable variable for regulating a column is boil-up.
• Boil- Up is controlled to achieve the desired product quality normally
in the bottom section.
• When the boil-up is regulated to achieve desired product purity, the
reboiler control valve is directly or indirectly manipulated by a tray
temperature, a product analyzer, or the base level.
• When the control valve is located at the inlet of the reboiler,
the heat transfer rate is controlled by changing the reboiler
condensing pressure .
• When a higher boil-up is needed the valve opens and
increases the reboiler pressure which increases the reboiler
temperature difference, which in turn increases the boil-up
rate.
• When the condensate flow rate is manipulated, vapor
always condenses essentially at the supply header pressure.
• Heat transfer rate is changed by partially flooding the
reboiler with condensate.
UNIT III : CONTROL OF CHEMICAL
REACTORS AND DRYERS
• Temperature Control
• Pressure Control
• Control of Dryers
• Batch Dryers
• Atmospheric and Vacuum Dryers
• Continuous Dryers.
Pressure and condensation control,

• Overhead stream should enter the reflux drum at a lower velocity so that it
prevents disturbances to the surface of the liquid.
• Vapor bypass piping & equalizing line should be self-draining and should
consist of no low points where condensate can be accumulated.
• For higher condensing temperature and narrow condensing range,
condensation on the reflux drum walls may affect condensation and pressure
control.
• The pressure-equalizing line should be sized for a minute pressure drop.
• As a rule of thumb, equalizing the line with 20 percent of the cross-section of
the column overhead vapor line is adequate enough to control unbalanced
pressure.
• For atmospheric distillation, column pressure is controlled by having
the column open to the atmosphere.
• By varying the airflow in and vent gas out of the column through the
column vent.
There are two techniques through which pressure can be controlled in
a distillation column.
• Vapor flow variations
• Flooded condensers
Vapor flow variations
• The column has a vapor product the controller directly manipulates
the vapor flow so that pressure can be controlled.
• This method is normally used for vacuum column , the pressure
controller varying the quantity of spillback to the ejector suction.
• The spill-back control method can also be applied to the pressure
columns where the vapor product is compressed.
Flooded Condenser:
• This pressure controlling method is one of the best methods for a total condenser
system.
• Some of the condenser surfaces are flooded with liquid always.
• The flow of condensate from the condenser is directly or indirectly controller to
vary the flooded area.
• In the flooded area, heat transfer is very low as heat is transferred by sensible
heat exchange only.
• To increase the distillation column pressure, the flow of condensate from the
condenser should be less.
• This low rate enhances the flooded area in the condenser and reduces the surface
area exposed to vapor condensation.
• This results in a reduction of condensation rate, thereby raising the pressure of
the distillation column.
CONTROL OF DRYERS
• Process of removal of a volatile solvent from a solid material.
• The solvent to be removed is water
• Heating medium used is steam.
It has 4 zones
1. A-B(period of product entry in to dryers)
2. B-C(period of evaporation of surface moisture)
3. C-D( After surface evaporation ,the rate of evaporation drop off)
4. D-E(the rate drop off even more)
Essential operating factors
• Source of heat
• Removing the solvent from the environment of the product
• Mechanism to provide agitation or surface renewal.
CONTROL
• The specific property of interest in dryer operation is moisture
content removal of the final product.
• This property is difficult to measure directly ,particularly for
continuous systems.
• In batch systems an empirical cycle is set up by taking samples for
moisture analysis at various time periods.
• Once approximation drying conditions have been established
checking of moisture is required only near the estimated end point.
• A similar procedure is followed for continuous systems.
• Empirical runs are made to establish dryness of a product with given
feed and dryer characteristics so that operating curves can be
developed.
• The control scheme is designed to maintain these conditions with
occasional feedback and with correction from samples.
• They are few analyzers available for moisture analysis in flow systems
that can be adapted for automatic, closed loop dryer control.
• The most successful of these units rely on infrared or capacitace
detection of material flowing through a sample chamber.
• These sensors are sometimes ineffective with relation to bound
moisture.
• Although spray and flash dryers have a retention period of less than a
second, holdup in the majority of continuous dryers ranges from 30
minutes to an hour.
• This fact makes automatic feed control so difficult that is rarely used .
• It is usually not feasible to measure the variation in moisture content
of the feed.
• The feed rate is metered by a screw conveyor or other similar devices.
• The variation in entering moisture is accounted for by the dryer
control system or by periodic analysis of the dried product followed
by suitable controller adjustment.
• Dryers controllers usually include proportional and rest modes, only
because dryer dynamics do not generally warrant the use of the rate
response.
• Most dryers control system are still relatively unsophisticated.
• The drying rate curve levels off in the area where most product
specification lie so control of final condition is not critical .
• Most moisture specification are some what liberal in recognition of
the difficulties present in moist and dry material handling.
• They also allow for possible change in moistur content due to ambient
air conditions after drying a characteristic of most dried materials.
BATCH DRYERS
• Continuous processing implies a more modern approach batch dryers
are still installed in many plants.
• These are particularly well adapted for drying relatively small
quantities, especially where batch identity might be of value and for
processes where a variety of products are manufactured.
• The selection and operation of controls for batch units is complicated
by the fact that the state of the product changes with time.
Atmospheric Dryers
• The term atmospheric dryers is applied here to designate batch dryers
which operate at close to atmospheric pressure and with the heat for
drying supplied by the air within the cabinet.
• The same medium is relied upon to remove the generated moisture.
• The two common type dryers are
1.Tray dryers:trays are covered with materials to be dried are loaded
into racks
2.Truck dryers:similar except that the racksof tray are mounted on
trucks.
• Control of the atmospheric temperature within the dryer is accomplished by
regulation of the steam to the heating coil.
• The thermal bulb can be placed in the dryer.
• The sizing of the steam valve is determined by the dryer air flow and
temperature requirements as analyzed on psychometer chart and by the
pressure of steam used.
• It is necessary during the latter portion of the drying cycle to reduce steam
flow to a level sufficient only to heat the air to the dryer temperature.
• The load at this time is limited to the dryer heat loss.
• A temperature switch is frequently include in the heater discharge to limit this
maximum inlet temperature.
• It is uncommon to use a program controller for temperature control of batch
tray dryer,particularly on solvent service.
• In this way the rate of evaporation is controlled and the concentration of
solvent in the air is held below the explosive range.
• A steam trap is installed in the condensate outlet piping.
• The traps function is to drain condensate but to prevent live steam
from passing.
• The condensate draining through the trap will again be close to
saturation temperature at the steam operating pressure.
• A steam trap must also open to allow air and non-condensables to
vent from the shell, particularly during the start-up period.
• When the trap drains condensate above 212°F into a vented return
system, re- evaporation or flash steam occurs to remove the excess
BTU’s.
• When the flash steam is vented to the atmosphere, energy is wasted.
• Calculation sheet is provided in the back of this manual to determine
energy loss in cooling condensate.
UNIT 4
 STEAM HEATERS
• Water can exist in the form of a solid, which we call ice, as a liquid, which we
call water, or as a gas which we call steam.
• If heat energy is added to water, its temperature rises to a point at which it can
no longer exist as a liquid.
• This is called the “saturation” point and any further addition of energy will
cause some of the water to boil off as steam.
• This evaporation of the water into steam requires large amounts of energy, and
while it is being added, the water and the steam released are at the same
temperature.
• If we then encourage the steam to release the energy that was originally
added to evaporate it, the steam will condense back into water at the same
temperature.
• A heat exchanger is where arrange for this release of energy to take place.
Why use steam?

• Steam has been used as a carrier of heat since the Industrial

Revolution and continues to be a modern, flexible and versatile tool
wherever heating is needed.
• It is produced by the evaporation of water; a relatively
inexpensive and plentiful commodity which is environmentally
friendly.
• Its temperature can be adjusted very accurately by controlling
its pressure.
• It carries a large amount of energy in a small mass.
Types of heating

• Before it is possible to select a correctly sized steam control valve, a

supply main, or even a steam boiler, it is necessary to know, with as
much accuracy as possible, how much Steam heaters steam is
required. Almost all heating loads fall into one of two categories.
• Temperature increase – heating a material from a lower
temperature to a higher temperature.
• Temperature maintenance – making up heat losses to maintain
a fixed temperature.
A steam system will normally consist of four main elements, all of which can
affect the efficient operation of each individual piece of steam using equipment.
• Steam generation
• Steam distribution
• Steam consuming equipment
• Condensate recovery and return
The purpose of the steam generation and distribution system is to provide steam
at the correct pressure, in sufficient quantity and in the best possible condition
to the equipment.
The steam users should be provided with the steam control and condensate
removal equipment that allow them to operate efficiently.
The condensate recovery and return system should remove condensate
effectively from the equipment and ensure that it is returned to the boiler house
to be re-used in the boiler.
• The steam to fluid heat exchanger utilizes steam which enters the shell
through a top vapor opening and surrounds the tubes inside of the shell.
• As the latent heat of steam is transferred to the medium inside of the
tubes condensation occurs.
• The condensate then collects in the bottom of the heat exchanger shell
and drains towards a bottom condensate outlet.
• The temperature of the steam in the shell has a direct correlation with
the steam operating pressure.
• As pressures increase, the temperature is higher.
• When the latent heat of steam is removed, the condensate will be close
to the saturation temperature corresponding to the steam pressure in
the heat exchanger shell.
• Slight sub-cooling of the condensate will occur before exiting from the
shell.
 CONDENSERS
• Condensers are used in a variety of operations in chemical and
petroleum processing, including distillation, refrigeration, and power
generation.
• Virtually, every distillation column employs either a partial or total
condenser to liquefy some, or all, of the overhead vapor stream,
thereby providing reflux for the column and (often) a liquid product
stream.
• In refrigeration operations, condensers are used to liquefy the high-
pressure refrigerant vapor leaving the compressor.
• Heat exchangers referred to as surface condensers are used to
condense the exhaust from steam turbines that generate in-house
power for plant operations.
• Condensation is the reverse of boiling, and the condensing curve is the
same as the boiling curve.
• Thus, many of the computational difficulties encountered in the
analysis of reboilers are present in condensers as well.
• For wide-boiling mixtures, in particular, the nonlinearity of the
condensing curve and the variation of liquid and vapor properties over
the condensing range mean that a zone or incremental analysis is
required for rigorous calculations.
• Mass-transfer effects may also be significant in the condensation of
mixtures, as they are in nucleate boiling of mixtures.
• On the other hand, condensing and boiling differ in important
respects. In particular, condensation is more amenable to fundamental
analysis, and useful heat-transfer correlations can be derived from first
principles.
Types of Condensers
• Most condensers used in the chemical process industries are shell-
and-tube exchangers or aircooled exchangers.
• In the latter, the condensing vapor flows inside a bank of finned tubes
and ambient air blown across the tubes by fans serves as the coolant.
• Other types of equipment, such as double-pipe exchangers, plate-
and-frame exchangers, and direct contact condensers are less
frequently used.
• In direct contact condensing, the coolant is sprayed directly into the
condensing vapor.
• This method is sometimes used for intermediate heat removal from
distillation and absorption columns by means of pumparounds.
• While direct contacting provides a high rate of heat transfer with low-
pressure drop, it is obviously limited to applications in which mixing of
coolant and condensate is permissible.
• Surface condensers are tubular exchangers, but their construction differs
somewhat from shell and- tube equipment used to condense process vapors.
• They are most often designed for vacuum operation on the shell (steam)
side, and hence must handle a large volumetric flow rate of vapor with very
low-pressure drop.
• Smaller units may have circular cross-flow shells similar to X-shells, but
larger units usually employ a box-type shell.
• In the remainder of this chapter, consideration is restricted to shell-and-tube
condensers used for condensation of process vapors.
• These units are classified according to orientation (horizontal versus vertical)
and placement of condensing vapor (shell side versus tube side).
Horizontal shell-side condenser
• Most large condensers in the process industries are oriented
horizontally in order to minimize the cost of support structures and
facilitate maintenance operations.
• The condensing vapor is often an organic compound or mixture and
the coolant is most often water, a combination that favors the use of
finned tubes.
• Therefore, the condensing vapor is most frequently placed in the
shell (the finned side) and the cooling water, which is usually more
prone to fouling, flows in the tubes.
Horizontal tube-side condenser
• This configuration is sometimes used to condense high-pressure or
corrosive vapors.
• It also occurs in kettle and horizontal thermosyphon reboilers when
the heating medium is steam or a condensing process stream.
• Multiple tube-side passes (usually two) can be used as well as the
single pass.
• Two-phase flow regimes are an important consideration in design of
these units since flow instabilities can cause operational problems
Vertical shell-side condenser

• This configuration is most commonly encountered in vertical thermosyphon

reboilers when the heating medium is steam or a condensing process stream.
• It is not widely used for condensing.
• Vapor enters at the top of the shell and flows downward along with the
condensate, which is removed at the bottom.
• The vent is placed near the bottom of the shell, but above the condensate
level.
• The tube bundle may be either baffled or unbaffled.
Reflux condenser

• A reflux condenser, also called a vent condenser or knockback condenser, is a vertical

tube-side condenser in which the vapor flows upward.
• These units are typically used when relatively small amounts of light components are
to be separated from a vapor mixture.
• The heavier components condense and flow downward along the tube walls, while
the light components remain in the vapor phase and exit through the vent in the
upper header.
• In distillation applications they are most often used as internal condensers, where the
condensate drains back into the top of the distillation column to supply the reflux, or
as secondary condensers attached to accumulators.
• These units have excellent venting characteristics, but the vapor velocity must be kept
low to prevent excessive entrainment of condensate and the possibility of flooding.
• The fluid placement (coolant in shell) entails the same disadvantages as the tube-side
downflow condenser.
 UNIT 5 CONTROL OF PUMPS

• Centrifugal pump: On-Off Level control - Pressure control - Flow

control - Throttling control. Rotary pumps: On-Off pressure
controlReciprocating Pumps: On-Off control and Throttling
controlWater Treatment Control: Chemical Oxidation - Chemical
Reduction - Naturalization - Precipitation Biological control.
Centrifugal pump
• Centrifugal pumps basically consist of a stationary pump casing and
an impeller mounted on a rotating shaft.
• The pump casing provides a pressure boundary for the pump and
contains channels to properly direct the suction and discharge flow.
• The pump casing has suction and discharge penetrations for the main
flow path of the pump and normally has small drain and vent fittings
to remove gases trapped in the pump casing or to drain the pump
casing for maintenance.
• A centrifugal pump is built up of two main parts:
• THE ROTOR (or Rotating Element).
• THE CASING (or Housing or Body).
The Rotor
• One of the greatest advantages of a centrifugal pump is that it has
very few moving parts which minimises mechanical problems and
energy losses due to friction. Other than the bearings, (and of course
the driver), the only moving part in a centrifugal pump is the Rotor.
Casings are generally of two types:
1.volute
2. circular.
The impellers are fitted inside the casings. Volute casings build a higher
head; circular casings are used for low head and high capacity
ON OFF LEVEL CONTROL

• On/off switching is the most common capacity control in use.

• It has many disadvantages such as flow surges that often hinder
processing, high friction losses, and high electricity peak demand
charges.
• However, on/off control is simple and can be economical, as its
consequences do not require redesign to accommodate the
limitations of on/off control.
• Pumps that are controlled only by starting and stopping are said to be
constant-speed (CS) pumps.
• When pumping suspended solids or slurries, when the pump is
stopped, a specific disadvantage of on/off control is that the solids
may settle out of the liquid and may not go back into suspension when
the pump starts again.
• This can cause plugging. This can also happen if pumping entrained oil
and grease.
• The grease will float and may stick to the top of the pipe. In these
cases, an option is to keep the pump running: deliver flow through a
circulating loop and control capacity with a pressure-controlled bypass
back to the feed tank.
• For example, one can provide intermittent flow to feed a centrifuge by
opening an on/off valve by a cycle timer. The pressure-controlled
bypass shown allows the normal pump flow to be maintained in the
loop, while the centrifuge feed valve is closed.
• CS (on/off) pump operation is usually straightforward, except that the
pump motor may overheat if it is started and stopped too frequently.
• Motors are usually rated for a maximum number of starts per hour
(sph), because bringing the motor up to speed involves higher
currents than keeping it at speed; perhaps ten times higher.
• Motor heating is proportional to current squared (I2R), so the heating
during start-up may be 100 times higher than normal.
• Submersible pumps are usually rated for up to 15 sph, whereas large
dry-pit pumps may be limited to 2–4 sph.
• Control systems must be designed to accommodate starts per hour
limitations.
• On/Off Level Control the use of level switches for on/off pump control. The
interlocks keep the tank level between the settings of LSH and LSL.
• In this the two level switches are connected to a PLC. When liquid reaches the
upper LSH switch, a 24V signal reaches PLC indicating that the level is high.
• Since the low level switch is in closed condition, at this point the pump starts.
As the pump runs, the level will fall.
• The level then drops below the LSH probe, the pump keeps running because
the holding contact (Motor Run) maintains the circuit.
• When the level drops below the LSL002, the low level switch contacts opens,
stopping the pump.
• When the level rises again, no action occurs when the LSL switch is closed,
because the holding contact is still open.
• However, when the level reaches the LSH, contact is established, and the
motor starts to repeat the pumping cycle.
 ON OFF PRESSURE CONTROL
• A pressure switch may be used to start a spare pump in order to
maintain pressure in a critical service when the operating pump fails.
In this case, if the pressure 3 Kg/cm2, the low pressure switch would
actuate the spare pump, which is piped in parallel with the first pump
• A second possibility is to boost pressure, as shown in Figure. In this
case, if Pump 1 is normally operating, when the discharge pressure
reduces below 3 Kg/cm2, the pressure switch (PSL) will act and PLC
will start Pump 2 and close the bypass valve. The system will now
operate at point delivering 4 Kg/cm2 pressure.
• When two or more pumps operate in series the total head-capacity curve is
obtained by summing up the pump heads at each capacity.
• When a booster pump is added to a main fed by several parallel pumps, the
total head capacity curve is obtained by adding the booster curve to the
modified head of the parallel pumps at each capacity point.
• Series pumping is most effective when the system head curve is steep. With
mostly friction loads, series pumping can substantially reduce the
overpressure at low loads.
• Therefore, booster pumps or two speed pumps can both be considered for
the same kind of steep system curves.
• Multiple pumps in series are preferred from an operating cost point of view,
but the capital cost investment of a single two-speed pump is lower.
• When constant-speed pumps are used, the booster pump can be started and
stopped automatically on the basis of pressure. In this case, an adjustable
dead band is provided in the pressure switch.
ON OFF FLOW CONTROL
• A Two pump arrangement that responds to varying flow demands
measured on the discharge side of the pumps.
• Pump 1 normally operates at 15 m3/hr rate. When flow decreases
below 15 m3/hr, and FSL acts and starts pump 2. The combined
characteristic gives 25 m3/hr flow rate.
• In this control scheme, a wide range of flows is possible without
serious loss of discharge pressure.
 ROTARY PUMPS
• Rotary pumps operate on the principle that a rotating vane, screw, or
gear traps the liquid in the suction side of the pump casing and forces
it to the discharge side of the casing.
• These pumps are essentially self-priming due to their capability of
removing air from suction lines and producing a high suction lift.
• In pumps designed for systems requiring high suction lift and self-
priming features, it is essential that all clearances between rotating
parts, and stationary parts, be kept to a minimum in order to reduce
slippage.
• Slippage is leakage of fluid from the discharge of the pump back to its
suction
• Due to the close clearances in rotary pumps, it is necessary to operate
these pumps at relatively low speed in order to secure reliable
operation and maintain pump capacity over an extended period of
time.
• Otherwise, the erosive action due to the high velocities of the liquid
passing through the narrow clearance spaces would soon cause
excessive wear and increased clearances, resulting in slippage.
• There are many types of positive displacement rotary pumps, and
they are normally grouped into three basic categories that include
gear pumps, screw pumps, and moving vane pumps.
• The simple gear pump consists of two spur gears meshing together
and revolving in opposite directions within a casing.
• Any liquid that fills the space bounded by two successive gear teeth
and the case must follow along with the teeth as they revolve.
• When the gear teeth mesh with the teeth of the other gear, the space
between the teeth is reduced, and the entrapped liquid is forced out
the pump discharge pipe.
• As the gears revolve and the teeth disengage, the space again opens
on the suction side of the pump, trapping new quantities of liquid and
carrying it around the pump case to the discharge.
• As liquid is carried away from the suction side, a lower pressure is
created, which draws liquid in through the suction line.
• With the large number of teeth usually employed on the gears, the
discharge is relatively smooth and continuous, with small quantities of
liquid being delivered to the discharge line in rapid succession.
• If designed with fewer teeth, the space between the teeth is greater and
the capacity increases for a given speed; however, the tendency toward a
pulsating discharge increases.
• In all simple gear pumps, power is applied to the shaft of one of the gears,
which transmits power to the driven gear through their meshing teeth.
• There are no valves in the gear pump to cause friction losses as in the
reciprocating pump.
• The high impeller velocities, with resultant friction losses, are not
required as in the centrifugal pump.
• Therefore, the gear pump is well suited for handling viscous fluids such as
fuel and lubricating oils.
RECIPROCATING PUMPS
• A positive displacement pump is one in which a definite volume of liquid is delivered
for each cycle of pump operation.
• This volume is constant regardless of the resistance to flow offered by the system the
pump is in, provided the capacity of the power unit driving the pump or pump
component strength limits are not exceeded.
• The positive displacement pump delivers liquid in separate volumes with no delivery
in between, although a pump having several chambers may have an overlapping
delivery among individual chambers, which minimizes this effect.
• The positive displacement pump differs from centrifugal pumps, which deliver a
continuous flow for any given pump speed and discharge resistance.
• Positive displacement pumps can be grouped into three basic categories based on
their design and operation.
• The three groups are reciprocating pumps, rotary pumps, and diaphragm pumps.
• All positive displacement pumps operate on the same basic principle.
• This principle can be most easily demonstrated by considering a
reciprocating positive displacement pump consisting of a single
reciprocating piston in a cylinder with a single suction port and a
single discharge port.
• Check valves in the suction and discharge ports allow flow in only one
direction.
• During the suction stroke, the piston moves to the left, causing the
check valve in the suction.
• Operation line between the reservoir and the pump cylinder to open
and admit water from the reservoir.
• During the discharge stroke, the piston moves to the right, seating the
check valve in the suction line and opening the check valve in the
discharge line.
• The volume of liquid moved by the pump in one cycle (one suction
stroke and one discharge stroke) is equal to the change in the liquid
volume of the cylinder as the piston moves from its farthest left
position to its farthest right position.
• Power pumps typically have high efficiency and are capable of developing very high
pressures.
• They can be driven by either electric motors or turbines. They are relatively
expensive pumps and can rarely be justified on the basis of efficiency over
centrifugal pumps.
• However, they are frequently justified over steam reciprocating pumps where
continuous duty service is needed due to the high steam requirements of direct-
acting steam pumps.
• In general, the effective flow rate of reciprocating pumps decreases as the viscosity
of the fluid being pumped increases because the speed of the pump must be
reduced.
• In contrast to centrifugal pumps, the differential pressure generated by
reciprocating pumps is independent of fluid density. It is dependent entirely on the
amount of force exerted on the piston.
• For more information on viscosity, density, and positive displacement pump theory,
refer to the handbook on Thermodynamics, Heat Transfer, and Fluid Flow
 WATER TREATMENT

• The water treatment plants is to remove organic matter and to reduce

the water’s nitrogen content to less than 20 mg/l in all forms.
• The water quality targets for the treated plant discharge usually
include BOD concentration under 5 mg/l, suspended solids
concentration under 3 mg/l, PO4 under 0.05 mg/l, and NO3 under 10
mg/l.
• If the plant discharge is for golf course use, the allowable BOD
concentration is under 10 mg/l and the suspended solids
concentration is under 12 mg/l.
• Environmental regulations restrict the discharges of chlorine, heavy
metals, arsenic, cyanides, biological pollutants, and excessively acidic
or basic water.
• The majority of industrial wastewater treatment processes are
continuous rather than batch-type operations.
• In the discussion that follows, the control of the following types of
water treatment processes will be described:
(1) chemical oxidation,
(2) chemical reduction,
(3) neutralization,
(4) precipitation/ flocculation/filtration,
(5) biological control by chlorination
CHEMICAL OXIDATION
• Wastewater is treated by chemical oxidation when the contaminant
can be destroyed, its chemical properties altered, or its physical form
changed.
• Examples of chemicals that can be destroyed are cyanides and
phenol. Sulfides can be oxidized to sulfates, thus changing their
characteristics completely. Iron and manganese can be oxidized from
the soluble ferrous or manganous state to the insoluble ferric or
manganic state, respectively, permitting their removal by
sedimentation.
• Strong oxidants, such as chlorine, chlorine dioxide, ozone, and
potassium permanganate, are used.
• Chlorine is preferred when it can be used because it is the least
expensive and is readily available.
• Ozone is a strong second choice and is now favored because its excess
converts to oxygen, while the excess chlorine could react with
industrial waste to produce cancer-causing substances.
• The time required for these reactions to proceed to completion is
usually pH-dependent.
• Most often, either residual oxidant or ORP measurement is used to
control these processes Cyanide Destruction Process Oxidation-
reduction implies a reversible reaction.
• Because these reactions are carried to completion and are not
reversible, the term is misleading.
• In practice, control is by what may be called “electrode potential
readings.”
• An illustration is the oxidation of cyanide into cyanate with chlorine,
according to the following reaction:
2Cl2 Chlorine + 4NaOH Sodium hydroxide + 2NaCN Sodium cyanide
2NaCNO Sodium cyanate + 4NaCl Sodium chloride + 2H O Water
CHEMICAL REDUCTION
• Wastewater treatment by chemical reduction is quite similar to chemical
oxidation.
• Commonly used reductants are sulfur dioxide and its sodium salts, such as sulfite,
bisulfite, and metabisulfite.
• Ferrous iron salts are infrequently used. Typical examples are reduction of
hexavalent chromium, dechlorination, and deoxygenation.
• Reduction of Hexavalent Chromium The ORP-based controls of the reduction of
highly toxic hexavalent chromium into the innocuous trivalent form.
• If the reducing agent is sulfur dioxide, the following reaction takes place:
3SO2 Sulfur dioxide + 2H2 CrO4 Chromic acid
Cr2 (SO2)3) Chromic sulfate + 2H O Water
NATURALIZATION
• It should be emphasized that pH is a measure of hydrogen ion activity
and not acid concentration.
• A weak sulfuric acid solution will have a low pH value because of the
high degree of hydrogen ion activity (disassociation), whereas some
strong organic acids may show a pH value as high as 3 or 4.
• Strong alkalis react quickly and efficiently to neutralize strong acids.
The simplicity of this fact is misleading in its consequences.
• Acid neutralization is a common requirement in wastewater
treatment, but few operations can be as complex.
• The information needed for the proper design of neutralization
systems includes
(1) flow rate and range of flow variations;
(2) titratable acid content and variations in acid concentration;
(3) rate of reaction;
(4) discharge requirements for suspended solids, dissolved solids, and
pH range.
• Neutralization control of wastewater is difficult because their acid or
base contents can vary by several decades and because as the type or
amount of buffering of acid (or base) varies, it changes the applicable
pH curve.
• In some plants, the flow rate of the wastewater is also highly variable
and the effluent itself can change from acidic to basic, in which case
two reagents are required.
• The smaller valve has equal percentage characteristics and is
throttled.
• This is desirable to match the pH characteristics near neutrality with
that of the valve.
• If the pH measurement moves outside a preset and narrow “dead
zone,” this causes the adjustment in the opening of the large linear
valve, thereby compensating for load changes.
PRECIPITATION
• Precipitation is the creation of insoluble materials by chemical
reactions that can then be removed through subsequent liquid solids
separation.
• Typical of these operations is the removal of sulfates, removal of
trivalent chromium, and softening of water with lime.
• Iron and manganese are removed by a variation of this process,
following the treatment discussed earlier in connection with the
chemical oxidation process.
BIOLOGICAL CONTROL
• Nearly every wastewater treatment process uses chlorination, although
drinking water chlorination is being phased out in favor of ozonation.
• Chlorination may be used either to reduce the possibility of pathogenic
bacterial contamination of the receiving water or to prevent biological
growth from interfering with other processes.
• Control of biological slimes that interfere with heat exchange in cooling
water systems is often accomplished with chlorine, but also with biocides.
• Chlorine is a strong oxidant with many other uses, as were described
earlier in connection with chemical oxidation.
• It is a very effective bactericidal agent readily available at reasonable cost.
• Its effectiveness has been proved by over 75 years of use.