Control Systems (CS)

Chapter-8
PID

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 Lecture Outline
 Introduction to PID
 Modes of Control
 On-Off Control
 Proportional Control
 Proportional + Integral Control
 Proportional + Derivative Control
 Proportional + Integral + Derivative Control

 PID Tuning Rules

 Zeigler-Nichol’s Tuning Rules
 1st Method
2
 2nd Method
 Introduction
• PID Stands for
– P  Proportional
– I  Integral
– D  Derivative

3
 Introduction
• The usefulness of PID controls lies in their general
applicability to most control systems.

• In particular, when the mathematical model of the plant

is not known and therefore analytical design methods
cannot be used, PID controls prove to be most useful.

• In the field of process control systems, it is well known

that the basic and modified PID control schemes have
proved their usefulness in providing satisfactory control,
although in many given situations they may not provide
optimal control.
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 Introduction
• It is interesting to note that more than half of the
industrial controllers in use today are PID controllers or
modified PID controllers.

• Because most PID controllers are adjusted on-site, many

different types of tuning rules have been proposed in the
literature.

• Using these tuning rules, delicate and fine tuning of PID

controllers can be made on-site.

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 Four Modes of Controllers

• Each mode of control has specific advantages and

limitations.

• On-Off (Bang Bang) Control

• Proportional (P)
• Proportional plus Integral (PI)
• Proportional plus Derivative (PD)
• Proportional plus Integral plus Derivative (PID)

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 On-Off Control
• This is the simplest form of control.

Set point

Error
Output

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 Proportional Control (P)
• In proportional mode, there is a continuous linear relation
between value of the controlled variable and position of the
final control element.
𝑟 (𝑡) 𝑒(𝑡) 𝑐 𝑝(𝑡)= 𝐾 𝑝 𝑒(𝑡) 𝑐 (𝑡)
𝐾𝑝 𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑏(𝑡) -

𝐹𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑏𝑎𝑐𝑘

• Output of proportional controller is

𝑐 𝑝(𝑡)= 𝐾 𝑝 𝑒(𝑡)
• The transfer function can be written as

𝐶𝑝 (𝑠)
=𝐾
𝐸(𝑠) 𝑝 8
 Proportional Controllers (P)
• As the gain is increased the system responds faster to
changes in set-point but becomes progressively
underdamped and eventually unstable.

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 Proportional Plus Integral Controllers (PI)
• Integral control describes a controller in which the output
rate of change is dependent on the magnitude of the
input.
• Specifically, a smaller amplitude input causes a slower
rate of change of the output.

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 Proportional Plus Integral Controllers (PI)
• The major advantage of integral controllers is that they have
the unique ability to return the controlled variable back to
the exact set point following a disturbance.

• Disadvantages of the integral control mode are that it

responds relatively slowly to an error signal and that it can
initially allow a large deviation at the instant the error is
produced.

• This can lead to system instability and cyclic operation. For

this reason, the integral control mode is not normally used
alone, but is combined with another control mode.
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 Proportional Plus Integral Control (PI)

𝐾 𝑖∫ 𝑒(𝑡)𝑑𝑡
∫
𝑟 (𝑡) 𝑒(𝑡)
𝐾 𝑝 𝑒(𝑡)+
+ 𝑐𝑝 𝑖 (𝑡 ) 𝑐 (𝑡)
𝐾𝑝 𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑏(𝑡) -

𝐹𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑏𝑎𝑐𝑘

𝑐𝑝𝑖 (𝑡 )= 𝐾 𝑝 𝑒 ( 𝑡 ) +𝐾 𝑖∫ 𝑒 ( 𝑡 ) 𝑑𝑡 12
 Proportional Plus Integral Control (PI)

𝑐𝑝𝑖 (𝑡 )= 𝐾 𝑝 𝑒 ( 𝑡 ) +𝐾 𝑖∫ 𝑒 ( 𝑡 ) 𝑑𝑡
• The transfer function can be written as

𝐶 𝑝 𝑖(𝑠 ) 1
= 𝐾 + 𝐾𝑖
𝐸(𝑠) 𝑝 𝑠

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Proportional Plus derivative Control (PD)
𝑑𝑒(𝑡)
𝑑 𝐾𝑑
𝑑𝑡
𝐾𝑑
𝑑𝑡
𝑟 (𝑡) 𝑒(𝑡)
𝐾 𝑝 𝑒(𝑡)+
+ 𝑐𝑝 𝑑 (𝑡 ) 𝑐 (𝑡)
𝐾𝑝 𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑏(𝑡) -

𝐹𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑏𝑎𝑐𝑘

𝑑𝑒(𝑡)
𝑐 𝑝 𝑑 (𝑡 )= 𝐾 𝑝 𝑒 ( 𝑡 ) + 𝐾 𝑑
𝑑𝑡
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 Proportional Plus derivative Control (PD)
𝑑𝑒(𝑡)
𝑐 𝑝 𝑑 (𝑡 )= 𝐾 𝑝 𝑒 ( 𝑡 ) + 𝐾 𝑑
𝑑𝑡
• The transfer function can be written as

𝐶 𝑝 𝑑 (𝑠 )
=𝐾 +𝐾 𝑑 𝑠
𝐸(𝑠) 𝑝

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 Proportional Plus derivative Control (PD)
• The stability and overshoot problems that arise when a
proportional controller is used at high gain can be mitigated by
adding a term proportional to the time-derivative of the error signal.
The value of the damping can be adjusted to achieve a critically
damped response.

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 Proportional Plus derivative Control (PD)
• The higher the error signal rate of change, the sooner the final
control element is positioned to the desired value.

• The added derivative action reduces initial overshoot of the

measured variable, and therefore aids in stabilizing the process
sooner.

• This control mode is called proportional plus derivative (PD) control

because the derivative section responds to the rate of change of the
error signal

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Proportional Plus Integral Plus Derivative Control (PID)
𝑑𝑒(𝑡)
𝑑 𝐾𝑑
𝑑𝑡
𝐾𝑑
𝑑𝑡
𝑟 (𝑡) 𝑒(𝑡)
𝐾 𝑝 𝑒(𝑡) +
+ 𝑐𝑝 𝑖𝑑 ( 𝑡 ) 𝑐 (𝑡)
𝐾𝑝 𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑏(𝑡) - +

∫ 𝐾 𝑖∫ 𝑒(𝑡)𝑑𝑡

𝐹𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑏𝑎𝑐𝑘

𝑑𝑒(𝑡)
𝑐𝑝 𝑖𝑑 ( 𝑡 ) =𝐾 𝑝 𝑒 ( 𝑡 )+ 𝐾 𝑖 ∫ 𝑒(𝑡)𝑑𝑡+𝐾 𝑑
𝑑𝑡 18
Proportional Plus Integral Plus Derivative Control (PID)

𝑑𝑒(𝑡)
𝑐𝑝 𝑖𝑑 ( 𝑡 ) =𝐾 𝑝 𝑒 ( 𝑡 )+ 𝐾 𝑖 ∫ 𝑒(𝑡)𝑑𝑡+𝐾 𝑑
𝑑𝑡
𝐶 𝑝 𝑖𝑑(𝑠) 1
=𝐾 + 𝐾 𝑖 + 𝐾 𝑑 𝑠
𝐸 (𝑠) 𝑝 𝑠

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Proportional Plus Integral Plus Derivative Control (PID)
• Although PD control deals neatly with the overshoot and ringing
problems associated with proportional control it does not cure the
problem with the steady-state error. Fortunately it is possible to
eliminate this while using relatively low gain by adding an integral
term to the control function which becomes

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 The Characteristics of P, I, and D controllers

CL RESPONSE RISE TIME OVERSHOOT SETTLING TIME S-S ERROR

Kp Decrease Increase Small Change Decrease

Ki Decrease Increase Increase Eliminate

Small Small
Kd Decrease Decrease
Change Change

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 Tips for Designing a PID Controller

1. Obtain an open-loop response and determine what needs to be improved

2. Add a proportional control to improve the rise time
3. Add a derivative control to improve the overshoot
4. Add an integral control to eliminate the steady-state error
5. Adjust each of Kp, Ki, and Kd until you obtain a desired overall response.

• Lastly, please keep in mind that you do not need to implement all three
controllers (proportional, derivative, and integral) into a single system, if
not necessary. For example, if a PI controller gives a good enough response
(like the above example), then you don't need to implement derivative
controller to the system. Keep the controller as simple as possible.

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Part-II

PID TUNING RULES

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 PID Tuning
• The transfer function of PID controller is given as
𝐶 𝑝 𝑖𝑑(𝑠) 1
=𝐾 + 𝐾 𝑖 + 𝐾 𝑑 𝑠
𝐸 (𝑠) 𝑝 𝑠
• It can be simplified as
𝐶 𝑝 𝑖𝑑 ( 𝑠 ) 1
=𝐾 (1+ +𝑇 𝑑 𝑠)
𝐸 ( 𝑠) 𝑝
𝑇𝑖𝑠
• Where
𝐾𝑝 𝐾𝑑
𝑇 𝑖= 𝑇 𝑑=
𝐾𝑖 𝐾𝑝

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 PID Tuning
• The process of selecting the controller parameters () to
meet given performance specifications is known as
controller tuning.

• Ziegler and Nichols suggested rules for tuning PID

controllers experimentally.

• Which are useful when mathematical models of plants are

not known.

• These rules can, of course, be applied to the design of

systems with known mathematical models. 25
 PID Tuning
• Such rules suggest a set of values of that will give a stable
operation of the system.

• However, the resulting system may exhibit a large maximum

overshoot in the step response, which is unacceptable.

• In such a case we need series of fine tunings until an

acceptable result is obtained.

• In fact, the Ziegler–Nichols tuning rules give an educated guess

for the parameter values and provide a starting point for fine
tuning, rather than giving the final settings for in a single shot.
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 Zeigler-Nichol’s PID Tuning Methods
• Ziegler and Nichols proposed rules for determining values
of the based on the transient response characteristics of a
given plant.

• Such determination of the parameters of PID controllers or

tuning of PID controllers can be made by engineers on-site
by experiments on the plant.

• There are two methods called Ziegler–Nichols tuning rules:

• First method (open loop Method)
• Second method (Closed Loop Method)
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 Zeigler-Nichol’s First Method
• In the first method, we
obtain experimentally
the response of the
plant to a unit-step
input.

• If the plant involves

neither integrator(s) nor
dominant complex-
conjugate poles, then
such a unit-step
response curve may look
S-shaped 28
 Zeigler-Nichol’s First Method
• This method applies if the response to a step input exhibits an
S-shaped curve.

• Such step-response curves may be generated experimentally

or from a dynamic simulation of the plant.
Table-1

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 Zeigler-Nichol’s Second Method
• In the second method, we first set and .

• Using the proportional control action only (as shown in

figure), increase Kp from 0 to a critical value Kcrat which the
output first exhibits sustained oscillations.

• If the output does not exhibit sustained oscillations for

whatever value Kp may take, then this method does not
apply.
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 Zeigler-Nichol’s Second Method
• Thus, the critical gain Kcr
and the corresponding
period Pcr are determined.

Table-2

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 Example-1
C (s) K  sL
 e
R( s) Ts  1

t
L

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Example-1

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 Example-1
Step Response

10

C( s ) 10  2 s
 e 6
Amplitude

R( s ) 3s  1
4

0 5 10 15
Time (sec)

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 Example-2
• Consider the control system shown in following figure.

• Apply a Ziegler–Nichols tuning rule for the determination

of the values of parameters .

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 Example-2
• Transfer function of the plant is

1
𝐺 ( 𝑠 )=
𝑠( 𝑠+1)(𝑠 +5)
• Since plant has an integrator therefore Ziegler-Nichol’s
first method is not applicable.

• According to second method proportional gain is varied

till sustained oscillations are produced.

• That value of Kc is referred as Kcr.

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 Example-2
• Here, since the transfer function of the plant is known we can
find using
– Root Locus
– Routh-Herwitz Stability Criterion

• By setting and closed loop transfer function is obtained as

follows.

𝐾𝑝

𝐶 (𝑠) 𝐾𝑝
=
𝑅 (𝑠 ) 𝑠 ( 𝑠+1 ) ( 𝑠+5 ) + 𝐾 𝑝 37
 Example-2
• The value of that makes the system marginally unstable so
that sustained oscillation occurs can be obtained as

𝑠 3 +6 𝑠2 +5 𝑠+ 𝐾 𝑝 =0
• The Routh array is obtained as

• Examining the coefficients of first

column of the Routh array we find
that sustained oscillations will
occur if .

• Thus the critical gain is

𝐾 𝑐𝑟 =30 38
 Example-2
• With gain set equal to 30, the characteristic equation
becomes
𝑠 3 +6 𝑠2 +5 𝑠+3 0= 0
• To find the frequency of sustained oscillations, we substitute
into the characteristic equation.

( 𝑗 𝜔)3 +6 ( 𝑗 𝜔)2 +5 𝑗 𝜔+3 0=0

• Further simplification leads to

6 (5 − 𝜔 ¿¿ 2)+ 𝑗 𝜔(5 − 𝜔¿¿ 2)=0 ¿ ¿

6 (5 − 𝜔 ¿¿ 2)=0 ¿

𝜔= √5 𝑟𝑎𝑑/ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 39
 Example-2
𝜔= √5 𝑟𝑎𝑑/ 𝑠𝑒𝑐
• Hence the period of sustained oscillations is

2𝜋
𝑃 𝑐𝑟 =
𝜔
2𝜋
𝑃 𝑐𝑟 = =2.8099 𝑠𝑒𝑐
√5
• Referring to Table-2
𝐾 𝑝 =0.6 𝐾 𝑐𝑟 =18
5
𝑇 𝑑=0.125 𝑃 𝑐𝑟 =0.35124 40
 Example-2
𝐾 𝑝 =18 5 𝑇 𝑑=0.35124
• Transfer function of PID controller is thus obtained as
1
𝐺𝑐 ( 𝑠)= 𝐾 𝑝 (1+ +𝑇 𝑑 𝑠)
𝑇𝑖𝑠
1
𝐺𝑐 ( 𝑠)=18 (1+ +0.35124 𝑠)
1.405 𝑠

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Example-2

42
 Electronic PID Controller
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅2
𝐾 𝑝 =−
𝑅1
𝑅3 𝑇 𝑑=− 𝑅 𝐷 2 𝐶 𝐷
𝑇 𝑖 =− 𝑅 𝐼 𝐶 𝐼

𝐶𝐷
𝑒(𝑡) 𝑅𝐷 2 𝑅𝐷 1 𝑅6 𝑅7 𝑅8

𝑅4

𝑅𝐼 𝐶𝐼

𝑅5

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 Electronic PID Controller

𝐸 𝑜 ( 𝑠) 𝑅 4 ( 𝑅1 𝐶 1 𝑠+1)( 𝑅2 𝐶 2 𝑠+1)
=
𝐸𝑖 (𝑠) 𝑅3 𝑅2 𝐶2 𝑠

𝐸𝑖 (𝑠) 𝑅3 𝑅1 (
𝐸 𝑜 ( 𝑠) 𝑅 4 𝑅 2 𝑅1 𝐶 1+ 𝑅 2 𝐶 2
=
𝑅2 𝐶2
+
1
𝑅 2 𝐶2 𝑠 )
+ 𝑅1 𝐶 1 𝑠
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 Electronic PID Controller
𝐸𝑖 (𝑠) 𝑅3 𝑅1 (
𝐸 𝑜 ( 𝑠) 𝑅 4 𝑅 2 𝑅1 𝐶 1+ 𝑅 2 𝐶 2
=
𝑅2 𝐶2
+
1
𝑅 2 𝐶2 𝑠
+ 𝑅1 𝐶 1 𝑠
)
𝐸 𝑜 ( 𝑠) 𝑅 4 ( 𝑅1 𝐶 1 + 𝑅2 𝐶 2 )
𝐸𝑖 (𝑠)
=
𝑅3 𝑅1 𝐶2
1+
[ 1
+
𝑅 1 𝐶 1 𝑅2 𝐶 2
( 𝑅1 𝐶 1 + 𝑅 2 𝐶 2 ) 𝑠 𝑅 1 𝐶 1 + 𝑅2 𝐶 2
𝑠
]
𝑅 4 ( 𝑅1 𝐶 1+ 𝑅2 𝐶 2 ) 𝑅 1 𝐶 1 𝑅2 𝐶 2
𝐾 𝑝= 𝑇 𝑖 =𝑅 1 𝐶 1 + 𝑅2 𝐶 2 𝑇 𝑑=
𝑅3 𝑅1 𝐶2 𝑅 1 𝐶 1 + 𝑅2 𝐶 2

• In terms of Kp, Ki, Kd we have

𝑅 4 ( 𝑅1 𝐶 1+ 𝑅2 𝐶 2 ) 𝑅4 𝑅 4 𝑅2 𝐶 1
𝐾 𝑝= 𝐾 𝑖= 𝐾 𝑑=
𝑅3 𝑅1 𝐶2 𝑅3 𝑅 1 𝐶 2 𝑅3
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END OF LECTURE

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