COTM 4192:

HIGHWAY
ENGINEERING II
4.0 STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF
FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT
Chair, infrastructure Design & Construction ,EIABC
4.0 STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF FLEXIBLE
PAVEMENT

FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT RIGID PAVEMENT

4.0 STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF FLEXIBLE
PAVEMENT
TYPES OF PAVEMENTS
4.0 STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF FLEXIBLE
PAVEMENT
FLEXIBLE RIGID
 4.0 STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF
FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT

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 Pavement Design is a gradually developing science from art
and highly dominated by empiricism even today.
 The different pavement design methods can be categorized
in to the following five classes
1. Empirical Method
2. Limiting shear failure method
3. Limiting deflection method
4. Regression Method based on road tests or pavement
performance(AASHTO)
5. Mechanistic-empirical method
 4.0. STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF FLEXIBLE
PAVEMENT
 Despite differences in different design methods, the

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fundamental considerations or parameters in Structural
design of Pavement include
1. Sub Grade strength
2. Traffic Load
3. Environment
 Hence, it worth important to discuss each of them to
understand their characterization and measurement when
considered as design input.
4.1.SUBGRADE SOIL
•Subgradecharacterization
•Design Subgrade CBR determination
•ERA subgrade classes
I. Sub-grade
 thematerial upon which the pavement structure is built or it can be
considered as the foundation for the pavement structure

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 The strength of the sub grade directly affect the thickness and
material quality of the above layers.
 Factors affecting Sub-grade Performance
Load bearing capacity  of subgrade is often affected by degree of
compaction, moisture content, and soil type
Moisture content.  Moisture tends to affect a number of sub-grade

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properties including load bearing capacity, shrinkage and
swelling
Shrinkage and/or swelling property/ Soil type 
NB: Weak sub grade is the main cause of Structural failures of
Pavement.

Soil type

Moisture Compactio
content n/ density

Sub grade
strength
SUB GRADE CHARACTERIZATION
The load bearing capacity or strength of Subgrade soil can be
measured by different empirical or non empirical parameters.

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The most common are:
1. California Bearing Ratio [CBR]
2. Resilient Modules [ER/MR]
MR =σ/e
In order to estimate Mr from CBR values the following relations
are provided in literatures
 Mr (psi) = 1500 x CBR

 Mr (Mpa) = 10.3x CBR

DESIGN CBR/MR VALUE
 For design purposes it is important that the strength of the
subgrade is not seriously underestimated for large areas of
pavement or overestimated to such an extent that there is a risk of

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local failures.
 Usually,the number of soil categories and the number of uniform
subgrade areas will not exceed 4 or 5 for a given road project.

 The design subgrade CBR/Mr for homogenous section is usually

taken as the 90 %-ile value(Percentile) of the CBR test results.
 The 90%-ile value for a section of this type is the CBR value in
which 10% of the test results fall below.
 However, the Asphalt institute recommends the percentile
depending on the traffic Load (ESAL) as shown in the table
below.
 DESIGN CBR/MR VALUE

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Example:
During subgrade soil investigation for a pavement design of a 6 km
homogenous road section, the following test result of a subgrade found 6,8,9,
14, 12, 9,9, 11, 12. Determine, the design subgrade CBR value (90th
Percentile)
SOLUTION
 Let us first write the values in increasing order and calculate percent
equal to or greater

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Computation of Percentile value
(using statistical Method)
 

Test Value Number Equal to or greater

than Percent Equal to or greater than
6 9 100%
8 8 88.9%
9 7 77.8%
9 6 66.7%
9 5 55.6%
11 4 44.4%
12 3 33.3%
12 2 22.2
14 1 11.1%

Therefore, from both the table and the graph we can see that the 90 th Percentile
CBR is 8%.
 The following shows another, but similar approach to calculate
90th percentile design CBR value(Graphical Method).
 CBR values are plotted in ascending order (number of tests on the "x axis"

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and the CBR test result values on the "y axis");
 Calculate d = 0.1 x (n-1), where n = number of tests;
 d is measured along the "x axis" and the CBRdesign is determined from the
"y-axis".
ERA PDM SUBGRADE CLASSIFICATION

According to ERA 2013 Pavement Design manual(PDM) the

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
sub grade is classified as follow based on its strength [CBR]

Sub grade class CBR % Range

S1 2
S2 3-4
S3 5-7
S4 8 -14
S5 15 -29
S6 30+
4.2. TRAFFIC LOADING &
VOLUME
•Traffic Loading (Axle load, wheel &
Axle Configuration
•Standard Axle Load
•Equivalent Axle Load Factor
•Traffic Volume & volume forecasting
•ESAL determination
 TRAFFIC LOADING & VOLUME
General
 The deterioration of paved roads caused by traffic results from both the

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magnitude of the individual wheel loads and the number of times these
loads are applied.
 It is necessary to consider not only the total number of vehicles that will
use the road but also the wheel loads (or, for convenience, the axle loads)
of these vehicles.
 Equivalency factors are used to convert traffic volumes into cumulative
standard axle loads.
 The mechanism of deterioration of gravel roads differs from that of
paved roads and is directly related to the number of vehicles using the
road rather than the number of equivalent standard axles.
 The traffic volume is therefore used in the design of unpaved roads, as
opposed to the paved roads which require the conversion of traffic
volumes into the appropriate cumulative number of equivalent standard
axles.
 TRAFFIC LOADING & VOLUME
 Traffic is the most important factor in Pavement design.
 The key points of traffic to be considered are

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 Loading Magnitude and configuration
 Number of load repetition

 There are three different procedures for considering the effect of

traffic in pavement design
1. Fixed Traffic
2. Fixed Vehicle
3. Variable Traffic & Vehicle
1. Fixed Traffic
 Pavement thickness is governed by a single wheel load (the
maximum) and the number of load repetition is not
considered
 If there is multiple wheel, it will be converted to Equivalent
Single Wheel Load (ESWL)
 This method is used in Airport pavement design and highway
pavement with heavy load but light traffic volume.
 TRAFFIC LOADING & VOLUME
2. Fixed Vehicle
 In this method, the thickness of pavement governed by the number

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of repetition of a standard vehicle or axle load. (usually a 80KN
(18kip) single axle, dual tire load)
 If a load is different from 80KN or consists of Tandem or Tridem
axles, it must be converted to an 80KN single axle load by using
equivalent axle load factor.
 Most of the design methods in use today for highway pavement are
based on fixed-vehicle concept.
3. Variable Traffic & Vehicle
 In this method, both traffic volume and vehicle considered
separately.
 No need of calculating equivalence factor, rather the stress-strain
and deflection by each group can be calculated.
 This method is best suited for Mechanistic approach
AXLE ARRANGEMENTS/ CONFIGURATION
An axle is a central shaft for a rotating wheel or gear

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AXLE CONFIGURATIONS
An axle is a central shaft for a rotating wheel or gear

Single Axle With Single Wheel

(Legal Axle Load = 6t) Tandem Axle
(Legal Axle Load = 18t)

Single Axle With Dual Wheel

(Legal Axle Load = 10t)

Tridem Axle
(Legal Axle Load = 24t)
 TRUCK CONFIGURATION

2 Axle Truck – 16t 5 Axle Truck – 40t

LCV

3 Axle Truck – 24t 4 Axle Semi Articulated – 34t

TRUCK CONFIGURATION

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01/28/23
 As stated before, Pavement failure caused by traffic is
mainly by
1. The Load magnitude & configuration of

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wheel/Axle
2. The Number of repetition of the load
 However, the wheel/axle loads of different vehicles is
different and hence the damage by different vehicles also
different.
 Therefore, according to fixed vehicle concept, we need to
convert the different loadings in to a standard axle load of
80KN.
HOW??????????
 In order to do that, we need to calculate the Equivalent
Axle Load Factor [EALF] for each load group
 TRAFFIC LOADING & VOLUME
 EQUVALENT AXLE LOAD FACTOR [EALF]
 Is the damage per pass to a pavement by the axle in questions

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relative to the damage per pass of a standard axle load, usually
the 80KN (18KiP) axle load.
 EALF depends on the type of pavement (Flexible or rigid),
thickness or structural capacity and terminal conditions at which
the pavement is considered to be fail.
 Most of the current widely used EALFs today are based on
experience; particularly from empirical equations developed in
AASHTO Road test.
 However, EALF can be theoretically developed from the critical
stress-strain relationships and pavement failure criteria.
STANDARD AXLE
 Single axle with dual wheels carrying a load of 80 kN
(8 tonnes) is defined as standard axle

80 kN

Standard Axle

1 kip = 4448.2216 N = 4.4482216 kN

 TRAFFIC LOADING & VOLUME

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Where
Wtx= number of x-axle load repetition at the end of time t
Wt18= number of 18kip single-axle load repetition at the end of time t
Lx = the load in Kip on one single axle, one set of tandem or one set of Tridem axles,
SN= Structural Number-a function of thickness, modulus of each layer, and drainage condition of
base and sub base.
L2= axle code (1 for single axle, 2 for tandem axle and 3 for Tridem axle)
Pt= terminal serviceability-indicates the pavement conditions to be considered as failures
β18 = the value of βx when Lx = 18 and L2 = 1.
Where,
Wtx = the number of x-axle load application at the end of time t.

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Wt18 = the number of 18kip (80KN) single-axle load application of time t.
Lx = axle load in kip on one single axle, one set of tandem axles, or one
set of tridem axle.
L2 = axle code, 1 for single axles, 2 for tandem axles and 3 for tridem
axles.
SN = structural number – a function of thickness, modulus of each layer,
and drainage condition of base and sub base.
Pt = terminal serviceability – indicates the pavement conditions to be
considered as failures.
β18 = the value of βx when Lx = 18 and L2 = 1.
 TRAFFIC LOADING & VOLUME
 Accordingly,

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The effect of pt and SN on EALF is erratic and is not completely consistent with
theory.
A disadvantage of using the above equations is that the EALF varies with the structural
number, which is a function of layer thicknesses
Theoretically, a method of successive approximations should be used, because the
EALF depends on the structural number and the structural number depends on the
EALF.
Practically, EALF is not very sensitive to pavement thickness, a SN equal to 5 may be
used for most case and a Pt value of 2 or 2.5 are assumed.
Example 1:
Given: pt = 2.5 and SN=5, determine the EALF for a 32 kip single Axle load; a 32 kip
tandem Axle load and a 32 kip Tridem Axle Load using the AASHTO EALF equation
and compare with the result with the table 6.4 in the next slide.
 01/28/23
NB:
The following
table helps to
determine the
EALF of different
Axle loads and
different Axle
Configuration
Solution
Single Axle Load Tandem Axle Load
L2 =1 ; SN=5 L2 =2 ; SN=5
Lx=32 ; pt= 2.5 Lx=32 ; pt= 2.5

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Gt =log ((4.2-2.5)/(4.2-1.5)) Gt =log ((4.2-2.5)/(4.2-1.5))
=-0.201 =-0.201
β x = 0.4 + (0.081(32+1) 3.23)/(65.19) β x = 0.4 + (0.081(32+2) 3.23)/(65.19)(23.23 )
=0.995 =0.47
β 18 = 0.4 + (0.081(18+1) 3.23)/(65.19) β 18 = 0.4 + (0.081(18+1) 3.23)/(65.19)
=0.5 =0.5
Log (Wtx/Wt18)= 4.79 log(19/33) + Log (Wtx/Wt18)= 4.79 log(19/34) +
4.33log(1) – (0.201/0.995) + 4.33log(2) – (0.201/0.47) +
(0.201/0.5) (0.201/0.5)
=-0.949 =-0.067
=> Wtx/Wt18 = 10-0.949 = 0.1125 => Wtx/Wt18 = 10-0.067= 1.167
EALF=(Wt18/Wtx)=1/0.1125 EALF=(Wt18/Wtx)=1/1.167
 EALF=8.88  EALF=0.857

The same with table 6.4 The same with table 6.4
 Tridem Axle Load
L2 =3 ; SN=5
Lx=32 ; pt= 2.5

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Gt =log ((4.2-2.5)/(4.2-1.5))
=-0.201
β x = 0.4 + (0.081(32+3) 3.23)/(65.19)(33.23 )
=0.42
β 18 = 0.4 + (0.081(18+1) 3.23)/(65.19)
=0.5
Log (Wtx/Wt18)= 4.79 log(19/35) +
4.33log(3) – (0.201/0.47) +
(0.201/0.5)
=0.719
=> Wtx/Wt18 = 100.719= 5.24
EALF=(Wt18/Wtx)=1/5.24
 EALF=0.191

The same with table 6.4

Example 2:
Determine the EALF for each of the following Axle loads using AASHTO EALF
equation and interpret the results

9kip (40KN) 18kip (80KN) 36kip (160KN) 54kip (240KN)

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EALF= 0.06 EALF= 1 EALF= EALF=
13.93 73.57

How do you understand the effect of overloaded vehicles on the pavement

damage? Why do think it is important to have a weigh-bridge along major
roads? How do you rate the importance of having weight-bridges ?
SOLUTION
9 kip Single Axle 18 kip Single Axle 36 kip Single Axle 54 kip Single Axle
 
Lx 9 Lx 18 Lx 36 Lx 54
SN 5 SN 5 SN 5

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SN 5
Pt 2.5 Pt 2.5 Pt 2.5
Pt 2.5
L2 1 L2 1 L2 1
   
L2 1
       
   
           
   
Gt -0.201 Gt -0.201 Gt -0.201
Gt -0.201
           
   
Bx 0.41 Bx 1.26 Bx 3.50
Bx 0.50
           
B18 0.5    
B18 0.5 B18 0.5
    B18 0.5      
 
   
log(Wtx/ log(Wtx/ log(Wtx/
Wt18) 1.25E+00 log(Wtx/ Wt18) -1.14E+00 Wt18) -1.87E+00
    Wt18) 4.70E-05        
   
Wtx/
Wtx/Wt18 17.79 0.07 Wtx/Wt18 0.01
Wt18 1.00 Wtx/Wt18
             
 
EALF 0.06 EALF 1.00 EALF 13.93 EALF 73.57
Example 3:
Determine the magnitude of the Axle load on a set of Tandem axle which will
have an EALF of 1? Determine the magnitude of the Axle load on a set of
Tridem axle which will have an EALF of 1? Using AASHTO EALF equation

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18kip (80KN) Axle Axle
load=148 kn load=212kn

EALF= 1 EALF= 1 EALF= 1

SOLUTION
33.25 kip Tandem Axle 47.63 kip Tridem Axle
18 kip Single Axle
   
 
Lx 33.25 Lx 47.63
Lx 18
SN 5 SN 5
SN 5

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Pt 2.5 Pt 2.5
Pt 2.5 L2 2 L2 3
L2 1        
           
    Gt -0.201 Gt -0.201
Gt -0.201        
    Bx 0.48 Bx 0.47
Bx 0.50        
    B18 0.5 B18 0.5
B18 0.5        
    log(Wtx/ log(Wtx/
log(Wtx/ Wt18) -2.56E-04 Wt18) -2.08E-04
Wt18) 4.70E-05        
   
Wtx/Wt18 1.00 Wtx/Wt18 1.00
Wtx/Wt18 1.00
       
   
EALF 1.00 EALF 1.000
EALF 1.00
Accordingly a 18Kip (80KN) single Axle Load; 33.25 Kip (148KN) Tandem Axle Load
and 47.63 (212 KN) Tridem Axle Loads have the same EALF=1
 Theoretical Method (4th power equation)
 in mechanistic method, the EALF can be determined from the failure
criteria.
 Two types of failure criteria's are commonly adopted:

01/28/23
1. fatigue cracking and
2. Rutting.
 To limit the failure due to fatigue cracking, the allowable load
repetition is expressed as:

Where,
Nf = the allowable number of load repetition for fatigue cracking.
εt = the tensile strain at the bottom of the asphalt layer.
E1 = modulus of asphalt layer, and
f1, f2 and f3 are constants to be determined.
 The other failure criterion is to control permanent deformation by limiting
the vertical compressive strain on top of the subgrade, which can be
expressed as:
01/28/23
 Theoretical Method (4th power equation)
The failure criterion for fatigue cracking with f2 of 3 .291 by the Asphalt Institute and
5 .671 by Shell :

01/28/23
Suggested values of f5 are 4 .477 by the Asphalt Institute, 4.0 by Shell, and
3 .571 by the University of Nottingham . It can be seen that the use of 4 for f5 is also
reasonable .

n n Where
ei wi e = strain for the ith and the
EALF = =
e std w std
standard vehicle
w = wheel load of the ith
and the standard vehicle

n = a number usually taken

as 4 and 4.5 in case of ERA
 The above equation can be re-written as

Where
n Lx = load in KN on a
Lx

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single axle
EALF =
80 n = a number usually taken as 4
but 4.5 in case of ERA

 The above equation is valid only when Lx is on single axle.

However, for Tandem and Tridem axles, a more general
equation is used
Where
Ls = load in KN on a standard axle which
n have the same number of axles as Lx.
EALF =
Lx Ls= 80KN for…Single axle
Ls Ls=148 KN …..For Tandem Axle
Ls= 212KN….for Tridem Axle
 Then, the total Equivalent Single Axle Load (ESAL)
calculated using

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Where
Fi = Equivalent Axle Load
factor of ith axle

ni = the # of passes of the ith

axle
 Example 4
Let number of load repetition expected by 80 KN
standard axle is 1000, 160 KN is 100 and 40 KN is

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10000. Find the equivalent axle load. Use n= 4
Solution:

Axle ESAL =
Number of Load EALF,
i Load
(KN)
Repetition , ni Fi F in i

1 80 1000 [80/80]4 = 1 1000

2 160 100 [160/80]4= 16 1600
3 40 10000 [40/80]4= 0.0625 625
ESAL 3225

How do you interpret these values

?/
Example-5:
The truck shown below found to weigh 67 KN and 110KN in the front
and rare axles, respectively. Determine the total ESAL by the truck.

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110 KN 67 KN = 4.06
ESAL=(110/80)^4 + ESAL=(67/80)^4
= 3.57 =0.49
Example-6:
The Big truck with two tandem axles sets and one single axle arrangement
found to have axle loads as shown below. Determine the total ESAL of the
truck.

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151KN 130KN 65 KN
EALF=(151/148)4 EALF=(130/148)4 EALF=(65/80)4
=1.09 =0.6 =0.44

ESAL=1.09 + 0.6 + 0.44 = 2.13

ESAL= ∑Fini
= 1.09+0.6+0.44
= 2.13
EXAMPLE-7(Assignment)
The truck shown below is used to transport Aggregate from crusher to a batching plant.
The company owns 12 trucks of the same type and each truck has to make 14
trips/day. If a two lane road connecting the batching plant and the crusher is assumed
to serves only for this purpose and only one of the lane is used for each direction,
answer the following questions using the average axle loads given below for each sets

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of axle,
a) Determine the ESAL exerted on the pavement along the loaded direction
per day
b) Determine the ESAL exerted in a year (365days) assume no
increase/decrease in the number of trucks
c) What will be the Cumulative ESAL in 20 years, assume no
increase/decrease in the number of trucks
Use the 4 power equation to determine EALF (n=4)
th

230 Kn 187Kn 85 Kn
Example-8:
The table below shows the Axle load survey result of a road section. In the survey
1000 trucks are weighted and the number axle loads in different load range is given
for both single axle & Tandem axle. Calculate the total ESAL and determine the
truck factor.

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(a) Using AASHTO EALF equation
(b) Using the 4th Power equation (n=4)
(c) Compare the results

Single Axle Tandem Axle

AXLE Axle/day/ Axle Load(KN) Axle/day/1000trucks
LOAD(KN) 1000trucks

≤35.6 1200 ≤62.3 220

35.6-53.4 240 62.3-89 200
53.4-71.2 200 89-115.7 180
71.2-80.1 160 115.7-133.5 200
80.1 - 89 60 133.5-142.4 5
89 - 97.9 15
97.9- 106.8 8
Solution
A) USING AASHTO METHOD

The procedure to be followed will be

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a) Determine the average axle load in each load group

b) Calculate the EALF for each average load determined above

c) multiply the EALF of each group by the number of repetition of the axle

d) Sum up the above product as ESAL

e) Repeat the above steps for the Tandem Axle loads separately

f) Sum up the ESALs obtained for Single Axle and Tandem Axle

To determine the Truck factor, divide the above ESAL by the

g) number of trucks counted (1000)
I- FOR THE SINGLE AXLE
LOAD

AXLE LOAD(KN) Average Axle Load EALF (using Axle/day/1000 ESAL=

(Kn) AASHTO trucks (ni) (Fi *ni)

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method)*
≤35.6 35.6 0.03 1200 36
35.6-53.4 44.5 0.09 240 21.6
53.4-71.2 62.3 0.36 200 72
71.2-80.1 75.65 0.8 160 128
80.1-89 84.55 1.24 60 74.4
89-97.9 93.45 1.83 15 27.45
97.9-106.8 102.35 2.58 8 20.64
Cummulative ESAL for single Axle 380.09

* To determine the EALF using AASHTO method, we can use the Equation
or
use the table for EALF by first converting the Average Axle load from KN
to Kip by dividing using 4.45.
II- FOR TANDEM AXLE
LOAD

Axle load(kn) Average Axle EALF (using Axle/ ESAL

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Load (Kn) AASHTO day/1000
method)* trucks
≤62.3 62.3 0.03 220 6.6
62.3-89 75.65 0.06 200 12
89-115.7 102.35 0.22 180 39.6
115.7-133.5 124.6 0.5 200 100
133.5-142.4 137.95 0.75 5 3.75
Cummulative ESAL for tandem Axle 161.95

Therefore, the Cumulative ESAL= 380.09 +161.95 = 542.0

Truck Factor = 542/1000 = 0.542

B) USING 4th POWER EQUATION
I- FOR THE SINGLE AXLE LOAD
AXLE LOAD(KN) Average Axle EALF (using 4th Axle/day/ ESAL
Load (Kn) power equation* 1000
trucks

01/28/23
≤35.6 35.6 0.04 1200 47.0567
35.6-53.4 44.5 0.10 240 22.9769
53.4-71.2 62.3 0.37 200 73.5567
71.2-80.1 75.65 0.80 160 127.937
80.1-89 84.55 1.25 60 74.8593
89-97.9 93.45 1.86 15 27.9286
97.9-106.8 102.35 2.68 8 21.4329
Cummulative ESAL for single Axle 395.75

II- FOR TANDEM AXLE LOAD

Axle load(kn) Average Axle EALF (using Axle/day/ ESAL
Load (Kn) AASHTO 1000
method)* trucks
≤62.3 62.3 0.03 220 6.90761
62.3-89 75.65 0.07 200 13.6527
89-115.7 102.35 0.23 180 41.1696
115.7-133.5 124.6 0.50 200 100.474
133.5-142.4 137.95 0.75 5 3.77407
Cummulative ESAL for tandem Axle 165.98
TF=561.7/1000
Therefore, the Cumulative ESAL= 395.75 +165.98 = 561.7
COMPARISON OF EALF EQUATIONS
Single EALF by EALF by n-calculated Remark
Axle Load AASHTO the 4th
Method power

01/28/23
equation
1 40 KN 0.06 0.063 4.06
(9kip)
2 80KN 1 1 -
(18kip)
3 160 KN 13.93 16 3.8
(36kip)
4 240 KN 73.57 81 3.91
(54kip)
5 320 KN 264.82 256 4.02
(72kip)

Therefore, as it can be clearly seen from the above table, the 4 th power equation
provides a good estimate and a near result as that of AASHTO equation but not
exactly the same result.
 ure
Select Design

ed
Period

roc
A np
ER tio Estimate Initial Traffic
to ula
, Volume (Initial AADT) per
ng Calc

01/28/23
Class of Vehicle
co AL
Ac : ES
rdi

Estimate Traffic
Fig

Growth

Determine Cumulative
Traffic Volumes over the
Design Period

For Paved Road For Gravel road

Estimate Mean Equivalent

Axle Load (EALF) factors per
Class of Vehicle Select Appropriate
AADT for Design of
Estimate Cumulative ESALs Gravel Wearing Course
Over the Design Period
 Design Period
Road Class Design Period
Trunk Road 20
Link Road 20

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Main Accesses Road 15
Others 10
Design Period According to ERA
 Vehicle Classification (ERA PDM)
TRAFFIC VOLUME
• AADT
•How to determine current Traffic
Volume-AADT?
• How to predict/ forecast future
Traffic Volume-AADT?
•How to determine cumulative traffic

volume?
 AADT (Average Annual Daily Traffic) is defined as the
daily traffic volume obtained by averaging a yearly traffic
volume.

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 It is calculated by conducting a 24 hour both direction traffic
count for at least a year and summing up the yearly traffic
volume divide it by 365 days.
 AADT is assumed to include the seasonal and hourly
variations.
 However, when a yearly data of a traffic volume not
available, ERA PDM recommends the following Procedures
to determine the current/initial traffic volume AADT
INITIAL/CURRENT TRAFFIC VOLUME-
AADT DETERMINATION

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1. Conduct a seven consecutive days count
2. The traffic count must include at least two days 24-hour
count (1 for weekday and 1 for week end) and for the rest
five days, the count must be for 16 hours.
3. Using the 24-hours count, extrapolate the 16-hours count
to a 24 hour traffic volume.
4. Avoid counting during days of exceptional traffic volume.
For example; holidays,
5. If possible, repeat the seven day count several times
throughout the year to incorporate the seasonal variation
 TRAFFIC FORECASTING
 It is natural that the traffic will always grew due to many

complex socio-economic factors.

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 In line with this ERA PDM identifies three types of traffic

growth sources
1. Normal traffic. Traffic which would pass along the existing road
or track even if no new pavement were provided.
2. Diverted traffic. Traffic that changes from another route (or mode
of transport) to the project road because of the improved
pavement, but still travels between the same origin and
destination.
3. Generated traffic. Additional traffic which occurs in response to
the provision or improvement of the road.
1. However, all the complex factors are incorporated as
growth factor and used to determine the future traffic
volume.
 Design period Traffic Volume Forecasting Procedure
according to ERA
1. Determine the initial traffic volume (AADT0) using traffic
survey for each type of vehicle

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2. Estimate the annual growth rate “i” and anticipate the year
“x” between traffic survey and road opening date
3. Determine AADT1 the traffic volume in both directions on
the year of the road opening by:
AADT1 = AADT0 (1+i)x
4. The cumulative number of vehicles, T over the chosen design
period N ( in years) is obtained by:
T = 365 *AADT1 *[ (1+i)N – 1] / ( i )

NB: For paved roads adjust the above Traffic Volume for Directional and
Lane Distribution by multiplying some factors
 Hence,
T adj = T* Dd * DL

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T adj = 365 *AADT1 *Dd * DL *[ (1+i)N – 1] / ( i )

 Dd = a directional distribution factor, expressed as a ratio Generally taken as 0.5

(50%) for most roadways unless more detailed information is known.

 DL = a lane distribution factor, expressed as a ratio, that accounts for the distribution
of loads when two or more lanes are available in one direction

Number of Lanes in Each Percent of Traffic in Design

Direction Lane
1 100
2 80 – 100
3 60 – 80
4 50 – 75
 Example 9 Vehicle Class 2002 AADT
 A two lane two way road is to be Car 250
constructed between two towns and the
following traffic & axle data were Bus 40
collected. Truck 130
 Initial traffic volumes in terms of AADTs

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Truck Trailer 180
have been established for 2002 for a section
of a trunk road under study, as follows: Axle Loads in Kg
 The anticipated traffic growth is a constant
Axle 1 Axle 2 Axle 3 Axle 4
5%, and the opening of the road is i
scheduled for 2005. 1 6780 14150 8290 8370
 In addition, an axle load survey has been 2 6260 12920 8090 9940
conducted, giving representative axle loads
for the various classes of heavy vehicles, 3 6350 13000 8490 9340
such as given below for truck-trailers (it is 4 5480 12480 7940 9470
assumed that the loads are equally
5 6450 8880 6290 10160
representative for each direction of traffic):
and the average axle loads for Busses and 6 5550 12240 8550 10150
trucks found to be 5200 kg and 12500 kg 7 11820 7640 9420
5500
respectively
8 4570 13930 2720 2410
 Determine the cumulative ESAL at the end
of the design period. 9 4190 15300 3110 2450
10 4940 15060 2880 2800
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ERA PDM TRAFFIC CLASSES
 Based on the ESAL, ERA2013 pavement design manual
classifies the traffic in to ten classes for flexible

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pavement design as shown below
Traffic Class ESAL range in 106
* The T10
T1 < 0.3 designs are
T2 0.3 – 0.7 suitable for
T3 0.7 – 1.5 traffic
of 80 mesa and
T4 1.5 – 3.0 are considered
T5 3.0 – 6.0 ‘long life’
T6 6.0 – 10.0 pavements.
They should be
T7 10.0 – 17.0 used for all
T8 17.0 – 30.0 higher traffic
levels.
T9 30-50
T10 50-80*
FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT
DESIGN
•AASHTO design Method
•ERA design Method
•AACRA design Method
•Asphalt Institute Design
Method
•Gravel road design Method
 AASHTO PAVEMENT DESIGN METHOD
 This method is based on the results of the extensive
AASHO road test in late 1950’s. The equations are further

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modified and revised to fit with different conditions.
 The basic design variables & concepts in this method are:
 Design Period/Performance period
 Reliability factor (R)
 Combined standard error (So)
 Resilient modulus (MR)
 Cumulative standard axels (ESAL)
 Change in serviceability index (∆PSI)
 Drainage coefficient
 Layer coefficient
AASHTO PAVEMENT DESIGN METHOD
 Before discussing the equations of the AASHTO pavement design, let
us first define the following concepts

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1. Serviceability Concept
 Is the measure of the road performance by the road users assessment
 Subjective and difficult to quantify
 Have Values ranging from 1 – 5
 Indicates the structural and functional performance of the road
 Measurements
 Visible distress; surface friction; slope variance e.t.c

PO=4.2 flexible pavement

PO= 4.5 Rigid Pavement

p0 Pt = 2.5 high standard

Pt = 2 low standard
∆PSI=p0 - pt

pt
Time
AASHTO PAVEMENT DESIGN METHOD
2. Reliability: is the probability that a pavement section designed using the
process will perform satisfactorily over the traffic and environmental conditions

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for the design period
 ZR and So variables account for reliability

Suggested levels of Reliability AASHTO Table 2.2, 1993

Level of Reliability (%)
Location
Urban Rural
Interstate 85-99.9 80-99.9
Principal Arterials 80-99 75-95
Collectors 80-95 75-95
 The Local
recommended values of the50-80
standard errors (So) for the 50-80
use of this manual
are
 Rigid Pavements: 0.30 - 0.40
 Flexible Pavements: 0.40 - 0.50
usually 0.45 is adopted for most cases
AASHTO PAVEMENT DESIGN METHOD

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 AASTO Pavement Design Equation

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 where:
 W18 = predicted number of 80 kN (18,000 lb.) ESALs

 ZR = standard normal deviate

 So = combined standard error of the traffic prediction and performance
prediction
 SN = Structural Number (an index that is indicative of the total pavement thickness
required)
SN = a1D1 + a2D2m2 + a3D3m3+...
 Where, a1, a2, a3,….. are layer coefficients
D1, D2, D3, …….are pavement layer thicknesses
m2, m3…..are drainage coefficients
 ΔPSI = difference between the initial design serviceability index, po, and the design terminal
serviceability index, pt
 MR = sub-grade resilient modulus (in psi)
The above equation can be easily solved by the following nomograph.

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The Purpose of the previous equation and the above nomograph is mainly to
determine, the structural number.
 AASHTO PAVEMENT DESIGN METHOD
 STRUCTRAL NUMBER
 Represent the overall structural requirement needed to sustain the

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design traffic loading.
 It is a function of layer thickness, layer coefficient, and drainage
coefficient.
 Given the following pavement section, the structural number can
be calculated as follow

D1 Surface E1 SN1
a1 SN2
SN3
D2 a2 ; m2 Base E2
SN1 = D1*a1
SN2= D1*a1 + D2*a2*m2
D3 a3 ; m3 Sub base E3 SN3= D1*a1 + D2*a2*m2 + D3*a3*m3

Sub grade MR
 Layer coefficient (ai): is a measure of the relative ability of a unit thickness
of a given material to function as structural component of a pavement.
 It can be determined from road tests and using different relationships which uses MR
to estimate layer coefficient. However, the following values are recommended on
literatures

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Pavement Component Layer coefficient (ai)
Wearing Surface
Sand mix Asphalt Concrete 0.35
Hot Mix Asphalt Concrete 0.44
Base
Crushed Stone 0.14
Dense graded crushed stone 0.18
Portland cement/aggregate 0.4
Lime Pozzolan/aggregate 0.4
Hot Mix Asphaltic Concrete 0.4
Sub-base
Crushed Stone 0.11
AASHTO PAVEMENT DESIGN METHOD
 Drainage Coefficient (mi)
 Depending on the quality of drainage and availability of

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moisture, drainage coefficient m2 and m3 should be applied
to granular base and sub-base to modify the layer coefficient.
PAVEMENT THICKNESS DETERMINATION

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D1 SN1
a1 Surface E1
SN2
SN3
D2 a2 Base E2

D3 a3 Sub base E3

Sub grade MR

General Procedure:
The procedure of thickness design is usually started from the top layer
as shown in the above figure and the following procedures:
1. Using E2 as MR, determine the structural number SN1 from the
nomograph which is required to protect the base, then compute the
thickness of the layer 1 using
SN1= D1*a1 => D1 > SN1

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a1

2. Using E3 as MR, from the nomograph determine the structural number

SN2 required to protect the sub-base and then compute the thickness of
layer 2 using the following relationship
SN2= D1*a1 + D2*a2*m2

=> D2 > SN2 – D1*a1

a2 * m2
3. Using the sub-grade MR, from the nomograph determine the SN3
required to protect the subgrade and then compute the thickness of layer
3
SN3= D1*a1 + D2*a2*m2 + D3*a3*m3

=> D3 > SN3 – D1*a1 – D2*a2*m2

a 3 * m3
Example-1
A pavement layer with resilient moduli, layer coefficients and drainage
coefficients is shown. If predicted ESAL=18.6x106, R=95%, So=0.35,

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∆psi= 2.1, Determine the thicknesses D1,D2,D3 using AASHTO pavement
design method.

E1=400Ksi a1=0.42
D1
E2=30Ksi a2=0.14 m2= 1.2 D2

E3=11 Ksi a3=0.08 m3=1.2 D3

MR= 5.7Ksi
 01/28/23
SN1=3.2(use E2), SN2=4.5( use E3), SN3=5.6(Use Mr)

Answer thickness: 1ksi=1000Psi

D1=7.6in (193mm) use 8in(203mm)
D2=6.8in (173mm) use 7in (178mm)
D3=11.1in (282mm) use 11.5in (292mm)
85
 Example-2(Exercise):
What will be the new pavement thickness for the above

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example-1; if only the reliability increased from 95% to
99%.
Minimum Pavement Thickness

For some practical reasons, it is mandatory to have a minimum pavement

thicknesses. The following table below shows the minimum pavement thickness
specified by AASHTO pavement design manual.

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CATALOGUE METHOD / ERA & TRL
(READING ASSIGNMENT

Pleases read ERA Pavement Design manual(2013) chapter

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10 Structural catalogue
 The design of flexible pavements presented here (ERA) is based
on the catalog of pavement structures of TRL Road Note 31 but
updated, improved and extended to higher traffic levels based on
the latest research.

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 Before the catalog is used, the elements described regarding
traffic and subgrade should be considered.
 Simultaneously, the information regarding availability, costs and
past experience with materials should be gathered.
 The catalog offers, in eight different charts in 2002 version and
seven different charts in 2013 version, alternative pavement
structures for combinations of traffic and subgrade classes.
 The various charts correspond to distinct combinations of
surfacing and road base materials, as shown in Tables below.
 Summary of Material Requirements for the Design Charts

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 All the charts provide alternate pavement structures for all subgrade classes
(S1 through S6). They are not however suitable for all classes of traffic, as
some structures would be neither technically appropriate nor economically
justified.
Use of the Catalog
 Although the thicknesses of layers should follow the design charts
whenever possible, some limited substitution of materials between sub-
base and selected fill is allowable based on the structural number

01/28/23
principles outlined in the AASHTO Guide for Design of Pavement
Structures and Appendix H. Where substitution is allowed, a note is
included with the design chart.
 Although a range of ‘qualities’ of granular material are specified within
the charts, when they are used for high traffic levels (above T5) and
even though they may be underneath high quality asphaltic concrete, it
is important that they are of the highest quality crushed stone.
 For low traffic levels from T1 to T3 in Charts A1, A2 and A3, a gravel
road base (GB3) may be considered.
 For hydraulically (cement or lime) stabilised materials, the charts
define the layers with different symbols and thereby indicate the
underlying assumptions regarding the strength
of material.
Use of the Catalog
 The choice of chart will depend on a variety of factors but should
be based on minimizing total transport costs.
 Factors that will need to be taken into account in a full evaluation

01/28/23
include:
 the likely level and timing of maintenance
 the probable behavior of the structure
 the experience and skill of contractors and the availability of
suitable equipment
 the cost of the different materials that might be used
 other risk factors
 The charts have been developed on the basis of reasonable assumptions
concerning the first three of these and therefore initial choice should be
based on local costs of feasible options.
 If any information is available concerning the likely behavior of
structures under the local conditions, then a simple risk analysis can
also be carried out to select the most appropriate structure.
 Assignment:
 Determine a pavement layers and thicknesses for a road whose
ESAL calculated in the previous example and the sub-grade CBR
value of 7%.

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 Given
 ESAL=20.65x106
 CBR=7%
 with the T8/S3 combination of traffic and subgrade strength
classes, the design charts indicate the possible alternate
pavement structures as:

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 Design Example: Possible Pavement Structures
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ERA(2013) CATALOGUE

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SUMMARY EXAMPLE-(ASSIGNMENT)
 A pavement structure for 8.5 Km an existing arterial two way two-lane road in
Addis Ababa is to be reconstructed. The Existing pavement layers will be

01/28/23
completely replaced. Sub grade investigation shows the following CBR values
along the centerline of the road; 9,8,7,7,7,8,6,10 and 6. The traffic count in 2009
shows the AADT to be 2,540 with the traffic composition as shown in the table
below. The traffic is expected to grow at a constant rate of 3.5% and the design
period is 20 years. If it is estimated that the construction will be completed with
in 2 years, design
a) The flexible pavement structure using ERA design procedure using
HMA for surfacing and granular base & sub-base materials
b) AASHTO design procedure (take, previous example pavement layer
properties)
c) Compare the results in terms of total thickness
Vehicle Types Traffic Axle Axle Load
Composition (KN)
Cars, pickups & light vans 30 Steering Single 20
Driving Single 25
17 Steering Single 30

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Small Bus > 25 seats
Driving Single 35
15 Steering Single 40
Medium Bus
Driving Single 70
10 Steering Single 70
Large Buses
Driving Single 85
10 Steering Single 35
Small Trucks/ISUZU
Driving Single 60
8 Steering Single 40
Medium Trucks
Driving Single 90
6 Steering Single 70
Heavy Trucks
Driving Tandem 130
4 Steering Single 60
Driving Tandem 130
Tracks & Trailers
Trailer FA-Tandem 110
Trailer RA-Tandem 100
THANK YOU
Question???????????????????