DATA ANALYSIS AND

INTERPRETATION
 What is Data?

Data - factual
information used as a
basis for
reasoning, discussion, or
calculation.
 What is the
first thing
that comes
to your mind The first instinct is to find
patterns, connections, and
when you relationships. You look at the data
see data? to get insights from it.
Antibacterial activity of guava extracts.
 Frequency Distribution of Motornapping Incidents Per Month
Series1
30
  Calendar Year Series2
Series3
2016 2017 2018
25
Months F F F
January 8 7 3
February 6 6 1 20

March 7 5 1
April 2 1 4 15

May 7 2 6
June 7 1 2 10

July 6 1 6
August 14 3 4 5

September 24 3 3
October 13 10 3 0
ar
y
ar
y ch ril ay ne Ju
ly st be
r
be
r
be
r
be
r
ar Ap M Ju gu
November 4 3 5 Ja
nu
Fe
br u
M A u
pt
em
Oc
to
ve
m
ce
m
Se No De
December 4 4 2
Total 102 46 40
 Data analysis is how
researchers go from a mass
of data to meaningful
insights.
- involves describing the
data by using statistical
methods and procedures.
 Data Interpretation
refers to the process of
making conclusions
based on the analysed
data.
Importance of • Data analysis and interpretation must be explained in the
Data Analysis research methodology. With the use of techniques, the data
collected are processed to determine the possible patterns
and and trends, discover similarities and differences, and find out
Interpretation possible relationships that exist in the data. Using the results,
the researcher will be able to address the research problems.
Frequency Distribution of Motornapping Incidents Per Month
It can be gleaned from the table
  Calendar Year
that for three years, there were a
2016 2017 2018 Total total of 188 motornapping
Months F % F % F % F % incidents. Considering the
January 8 7.8 7 15.2 3 7.5 18 9.6
months of the year, it can be
noted that the incident was
February 6 5.9 6 13 1 2.5 13 6.9
recorded highest on the months
March 7 6.9 5 10.9 1 2.5 13 6.9 of September and October.
April 2 2 1 2.2 4 10 7 3.7 Specifically, the month of
May 7 6.9 2 4.3 6 15 15 8 September in 2016 recorded the
June 7 6.9 1 2.2 2 5 10 5.3
highest motornapping incident
with 24 which is 23.5% of the
July 6 5.9 1 2.2 6 15 13 6.9
total. In 2017, the month of
August 14 13.7 3 6.5 4 10 21 11.2 October recorded the highest
September 24 23.5 3 6.5 3 7.5 30 16 incident with a total of 10
October 13 12.7 10 21.7 3 7.5 26 13.8
(21.7%) while in 2018, the
months of May and July
November 4 3.9 3 6.5 5 12.5 12 6.4
recorded the highest incident
December 4 3.9 4 8.7 2 5 10 5.3 with the total of 6 (15%) each.
Total 102 100 46 100 40 100 188 100
Lesson 1: STEPS ON
QUALITATIVE DATA
ANALYSIS
Step 1: • Coding can be explained as categorization of
DEVELOPING data. A ‘code’ can be a word or a short phrase
that represents a theme or an idea. All codes need
AND APPLYING to be assigned meaningful titles. A wide range of
CODE non-quantifiable elements such as events,
behaviors, activities, meanings etc. can be coded.
Step 2: IDENTIFYING THEMES, PATTERNS AND
RELATIONSHIPS
• Unlike quantitative methods, in qualitative data analysis there are no
universally applicable techniques that can be applied to generate
findings.
• Analytical and critical thinking skills of researcher plays significant
role in data analysis in qualitative studies. Therefore, no qualitative
study can be repeated to generate the same results.
Step 2: IDENTIFYING THEMES, PATTERNS AND
RELATIONSHIPS
• Nevertheless, there is a set of techniques that you can use to identify
common themes, patterns and relationships within responses of sample
group members in relation to codes that have been specified in the
previous stage.
Step 2: • Nevertheless, there is a set of techniques that
IDENTIFYING you can use to identify common themes,
THEMES, patterns and relationships within responses of
PATTERNS AND sample group members in relation to codes
RELATIONSHIPS that have been specified in the previous stage.
Step 2: IDENTIFYING THEMES,
PATTERNS AND RELATIONSHIPS
• Specifically, the most popular and effective methods of qualitative data
interpretation include the following:
 Word and phrase repetitions – scanning primary data for words and
phrases most commonly used by respondents, as well as, words and
phrases used with unusual emotions;
 Primary and secondary data comparisons – comparing the findings of
interview/focus group/observation/any other qualitative data collection
method with the findings of literature review and discussing differences
between them;
 Search for missing information – discussions about which aspects of the
issue was not mentioned by respondents, although you expected them to be
mentioned;
 Metaphors and analogues – comparing primary research findings to
phenomena from a different area and discussing similarities and
differences.
Step 3: SUMMARIZING THE DATA
• At this last stage you need to link research findings to hypotheses or research aim and
objectives. When writing data analysis chapter, you can use noteworthy quotations from
the transcript in order to highlight major themes within findings and possible
contradictions.
Step 3: SUMMARIZING THE DATA

• It is important to note that the process of qualitative data analysis

described above is general and different types of qualitative
studies may require slightly different methods of data analysis.
 Lesson 3:
QUANTITATIVE DATA
ANALYSIS METHODS
The two most commonly used
quantitative data analysis methods are descriptive statistics
and inferential statistics.
 DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS
TYPES OF Is a statistical procedure concerned with
STATISTICS: describing the characteristics and
properties of a group of persons, places, or
things.
TYPES OF STATISTICS:
DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS
It is concerned with the methods
of collecting, organizing, and
presenting data appropriately and
creatively to describe or assess
group characteristics.
 Descriptive Statistics
JAN FEB MAR
• Example:
Is the rate of COVID- 19 cases in the
municipality of Tuguegarao decreasing or not?
TUGUEGARAO 18 19 25
CITY

Descriptive Statistics. COVID-19 cases in a

municipality are usually recorded, hence the tuguegarao
total by month, or quarter or annual frequency 45
may be obtained, graphed or put in a table. 40
35
There is no need to use inferential statistics to 30
25

make a conclusion here since all the figures are 20

15
10
known. 5
0
January Febuary March April

tuguegarao
Descriptive Statistics
• Univariate statistics
Univariate analysis involves the examination
across cases of one variable at a time.
There are three major characteristics of a single
variable that we tend to look at:

the distribution
the central tendency
the dispersion
 • Frequency distribution
Descriptive The simplest way to describe numerical data
is through the use of frequency distribution.
Statistics This is done by computing the percentage
frequency distribution of the variable with the
total number of respondents.
Example:
• Consider the following test scores of 50 students in a
50- item test in Statistics.
• The table presents that out of the 50- item test in Statistics, 11 of the students obtained
a score ranging from 27- 32. The lowest score obtained by one student is within the
range3- 8 while 4 students gained the highest scores within the range of 45- 50.
Descriptive Statistics
• Central Tendency
• The central tendency of a distribution is
an estimate of the “center” of a
distribution of values. There are three
major types of estimates of central
tendency:
• Mean
• Median
• Mode
 Mean- or average is probably the
most commonly used method of
describing central tendency.

Descriptive 15, 20, 21, 20, 36, 15, 25,

Statistics 15

The sum of these 8 values is 167,

so the mean is 167/8 = 20.875.
 Median- is the score found at the
exact middle of the set of values

Descriptive 15, 15, 15, 20, 20, 21, 25, 36

Statistics
There are 8 scores and score #4 and #5 represent the
halfway point. Since both of these scores are 20, the
median is 20. If the two middle scores had different
values, you would have to interpolate to determine the
median.
 Mode- is the most frequently
occurring value in the set of scores.

Descriptive 15, 15, 15, 20, 20, 21, 25, 36

Statistics

in our example, the value 15 occurs

three times and is the model.
 Descriptive
Statistics
• Dispersion
• refers to the spread of the
values around the central
tendency.
• There are two common
measures of dispersion,
the range and the
standard deviation.
Descriptive Statistics
• Dispersion(RANGE)
• range is simply the highest value minus the lowest value. In our example
distribution, the high value is 36 and the low is 15, so the range is 36 - 15 = 21.he
 Descriptive Statistics
• Dispersion(STANDARD
DEVIATION)
• Standard Deviation is a more
accurate and detailed estimate of
dispersion because an outlier can
greatly exaggerate the range.
• The standard deviation is the average
amount of variability in your data
set. It tells you, on average, how far
each score lies from the mean.
Descriptive Statistics
• Dispersion(STANDARD DEVIATION)
Descriptive Statistics
• Bivariate statistics
Allow researcher to analyze two
variables together.
Describes the relationship between two
variables.
Common statistical tool:
Spearman rank correlation
Pearson correlation
Linear regression
Descriptive Statistics
• Bivariate statistics (SPEARMAN RANK
CORRELATION)
is a technique which can be used to summarise the strength and
direction (negative or positive) of a relationship between two
variables.
 Descriptive
Statistics
• Bivariate statistics
(PEARSON
CORRELATION)
is the test statistics that
measures the statistical
relationship, or association,
between two continuous
variables.
It gives information about the
magnitude of the association,
or correlation, as well as the
direction of the relationship.
 • Bivariate statistics (LINEAR REGRESSION)

Descriptive  is the next step up after correlation. It is used when we want to predict
the value of a variable based on the value of another variable.
Statistics  The variable we want to predict is called the dependent variable (or
sometimes, the outcome variable).
 TYPES OF
STATISTICS:
INFERENTIAL STATISTICS
is a statistical procedure that is
used to draw inferences or
information about the properties
or characteristics by a large group
of people, places, or things on the
basis of the information obtained
from a small portion of a large
group.
 Inferential Statistics
• Example:
Hypothesis: An ecologist says that the fish in a certain pond has 400
units of mercury on the average.

Inferential Statistics. It is not practical to catch all the fish in the pond
and kill them to measure their mercury content. Instead, the ecologist
should take a sample of fish and test them for mercury content.
Hence, inferential statistics is needed to be able to conclude on
whether the fish in that pond contains an average of 400 units of
mercury or not.
 Inferential Statistics
• Example:
Problem: A pollster would like to predict the mayoralty winner of a
certain municipality. However, he has budget for a quick survey for
only 25 out of the 100 barangays of that municipality.

Inferential Statistic. Based on the statement above only 25 barangays

are involved in the survey to make a prediction on the mayoralty
winner.
 Types of Inferential Statistics:
 Parametric- used when the researcher can assume that the population values are
normally distributed, variances are equal, and data are interval or ratio in scale.
Inferential • T-tests
• ANOVA
Statistics • Multiple regression
• ANCOVA
 Non-parametric-
• Chi-square
STATISTICAL TOOL WHAT IS IT USED FOR?

T-test
Inferential Statistics
• The most common statistical procedure for determining the level of
significance when two means are compared.
• A t-test may also be used when a researcher wants to show that a
correlation coefficient is significantly different from 0 (which would
indicate no correlation)
Analysis of Variance • Analysis of variance allows a researcher to examine differences in
(ANOVA) all population means simultaneously rather than conducting a series
of t-tests.
• It uses variances (rather than means) of groups to calculate a value
that reflects the degree of differences in the means
Chi-square • Nonparametric procedure used when data are in nominal form
• It is a way of answering questions about relationship based on
frequencies of observations in categories
• Two groups and two treatments or multiple groups and multiple
treatments
 Lesson 4: DATA
PRESENTATION
 In qualitative research, tables and graphs are used to
Using Graphs represent data. Data tables show data results and they
can be used to analyze data results. On the other hand,
graphs can be used to explain data results.

Example 1: Use of Data Table

Sales Figures for a Year Broken Down by Quarters

Data Values
Quarter 1 4.1
Quarter 2 2.5
Quarter 3 3.5
Quarter 4 4.7
 In qualitative research, tables and graphs are used to
Using Graphs represent data. Data tables show data results and they
can be used to analyze data results. On the other hand,
graphs can be used to explain data results.
Example 2: Use of Bar Graph (using the same previous data)

4.5

3.5
Sample Interpretation:
3

2.5
Based from the graph, it clearly shows
2
that Quarter 4 has the highest sales
1.5
figures of 4.7 while Quarter 2 registered
1
the lowest which has a value of 2.5.
0.5

0
Quarter 1 Quarter 2 Quarter 3 Quarter 4
 uses pictures to represent a particular number of
Pictograph items. See example below.

Sample Interpretation:
Based on the graph, most of the students
preferred Math Club as their after-school
club. 36 out of 156 students were members of
the Math Club. It was followed by the Sports
Club which has 24 members. The Hobby Club
and the Writer’s Club has the least number of
members. It has 12 members respectively.
 shows how a whole is broken down into significant
Pie Chart parts
Quarterly Sales
1st Quarter 2nd Quarter 3rd Quarter 4th Quarter
Figures
8.2 3.2 1.4 1.2

Sample Interpretation:
Chart Title
Based on the graph, it clearly shows
that Quarter 1 has the highest sales
figures of 8.2 or 58% while Quarter 4
registered the lowest sales figures of
9% 1 st Quarter
10 %
2 nd Quarter
2.5 or 9%.
23 % 58 % 3 rd Quarter

4 th Quarter
 used to show dependent data and the development of
Line Graph trends over time
Quarterly
Sales Figures 1st Quarter 2nd Quarter 3rd Quarter 4th Quarter

8.2 3.2 1.4 1.2

Sample Interpretation:
Chart Title
Based on the graph, the trend of quarterly
10 sales is decreasing from Quarter 1 to
8.2
Quarter 4. Quarter 1 registered with a
5
quarterly sales of 8.2 and continuously
3.2
decreases per quarter until Quarter 4
1.4 1.2 which registered a quarterly sales of 1.2.
0

1 st Quarter 2 nd Quarter 3 rd Quarter 4 th Quarter