Solid State Physics

Text Book for reference:

• Modern Physics, Mc Graw Hill, 6th
edition., 2009
by Beiser & Mahajan

• PHYSICS for Scientists and

Engineers with Modern Physics
(6th ed)
by Serway & Jewett

1
 • Band theory of solids
• Energy electrical conduction in metals,
insulators and semiconductors
Syllabus • Superconductivity
• Type-I and Type-II superconductors
• Meisner effect, BCS theory
• Applications of superconductivity.
 • Applying Quantum Mechanics to solids

• Able to explain many physical properties of

Band Theory solids, such as electrical resistivity and
of Solids optical absorption

• Foundation of the understanding of all solid-

state devices (transistors, solar cells, etc.)
 BAND THEORY OF SOLIDS

There are two different wave functions S (r) and  S (r ) (for an atom with single s-

electron outside of a closed shell) for which the probability density is the same.
The wave functions of two atoms combine to form a composite wave function for
the two-atom system when the atoms are close together. In Figure (a), two
 S (r)
atoms with wave functions combine. In Figure (b), two atoms with wave
 
functions
S (r )  S (r ) and combine.

These two possible combinations of wave functions

represent two possible states of the two-atom system
which have slightly different energies. Thus, each energy
level of an atom splits into two close energy levels when
the wave functions of the two atoms overlap.
Isolated Sodium (Na) atom
Number of electrons: 11: How this electrons will be filled??
• Occupancy of levels: Pauli’s Exclusion Principle

Splitting of 1s and 2s Splitting of 1s and 2s For n (Avogadro number)

levels when two levels when five sodium sodium atoms the levels
sodium atoms are atoms are brought as so close they will
brought together together appear as band
 BAND THEORY OF SOLIDS

• For crystalline solid there are a large number of allowed

energy bands.
ENERGY BANDS OF SODIUM
• Forbidden energy gaps occur between the allowed bands. CRYSTAL

• Some bands may be wide enough in energy so that there is

an overlap between the adjacent bands.
3p
• The 1s, 2s, and 2p bands of solid sodium are filled
completely with electrons. 3s
E
• Since there are 2(2l+1) energy states in a subshell each
energy band has 2(2l+1)N energy states, where N = number of 2p
atoms in the crystal.
2s
• The 3s band (2N states) of solid sodium has only N electrons
and is partially full; The 3p band and the bands above this
1s
are completely empty.
 Eg = 0
PARTIALLY FILLED
VB & CB E=EF

CONDUCTOR
E=0
Band Theory of
Solids/
Conductors

• The 3s level has capacity to accommodate 2N electrons, and for

Na only N electrons are available the band is partially filled
• Since the band is partially filed the electron can move freely and
hence give rise to good electric conductivity of metals in general.
• In other words the conduction and valance bands are overlapping
 EMPTY CB

Eg EF

FILLED VB

Band Theory of
INSULATOR

• The outermost energy bands are filled valence band and Solids/Insulators
empty conduction band with a large energy gap (Eg>>kT,
kT = thermal energy).
• The Fermi-level lies in the energy gap.
• Thermal energy at room temperature is not sufficient to
excite the electrons from valence-band to conduction
band.
• Since the free-electron density is nearly zero, these
materials are bad conductors of electricity.
 CONDUCTION BAND

Eg EF

VALENCE BAND

SEMICONDUCTOR
These have the band structure similar to an insulator but the energy gap
Band Theory of
is much smaller ( 1 eV).
Solids/
At zero K, all electrons in semiconductors are in the valence band, and
no energy is available to excite them across the energy gap. Thus, Semiconductors
semiconductors are poor conductors at very low temperatures.

At room temperature a small fraction of valence electrons are thermally

excited to conduction band.

Because the thermal excitation of electrons across the narrow gap is

more probable at higher temperatures, the conductivity of semiconductors
increases rapidly with temperature. [The conductivity of a metal
decreases slowly with increasing temperature.]
 Intrinsic Semiconductor
• The charge carriers in a semiconductors are electrons and holes.

• When an electron moves from the valence band into the ELECTRONS
CONDUCTION HOLES
conduction band, it leaves behind a vacant site, called a hole
(particle with a positive charge +e). ELECTRONS CONDUCTION
BAND
• In an intrinsic semiconductor (pure semiconductor) there are ENERGY GAP
equal number of conduction electrons and holes.
VALENCE BAND
• In the presence of an external electric field, the holes move in
the direction of field and the conduction electrons move opposite
to the direction of the field. Both these motions correspond to APPLIED E-FIELD
the current in the same direction.
 Extrinsic Semiconductor (n-type)
• Doping is the process of adding impurities to a semiconductor. Doped
semiconductor is also called extrinsic semiconductor. By doping both the
band structure of the semiconductor and its resistivity are modified.

• If a tetravalent semiconductor (Si or Ge) is doped with a pentavalent

impurity atom (donor atom), four of the electrons form covalent bonds
with atoms of the semiconductor and one is left over.
• Since the energy Ed between the donor levels and the bottom of the
conduction band is small, at room temperature, the extra electron is
thermally excited to the conduction band. This type of semiconductors
are called n-type semiconductors because the majority of charge
carriers are electrons (negatively charged).

• At zero K, this extra electron resides in the donor-levels, that lie in the
energy gap, just below the conduction band.
 Extrinsic Semiconductor (p-type)
• If a tetravalent semiconductor is doped with a trivalent impurity atom
(acceptor atom), the three electrons form covalent bonds with neighboring
semiconductor atoms, leaving an electron deficiency (a hole) at the site of
fourth bond.

• At zero K, this hole resides in the acceptor levels that lie in the energy
gap just above the valence band.

• Since the energy Ea between the acceptor levels and the top of the
valence band is small, at room temperature, an electron from the valence
band is thermally excited to the acceptor levels leaving behind a hole in
the valence band.

• This type of semiconductors are called p-type semiconductors because the

majority of charge carriers are holes (positively charged).
SJ-PROBLEM 43.37: Light from a hydrogen discharge tube is incident on a CdS
crystal (Eg= 2.42 eV). Which spectral line from the Balmer series are absorbed and
which are transmitted ?

Answer: All Balmer lines absorbed except the red line (656 nm) which is
transmitted.

SOLUTION TO SJ-PROBLEM 43.37

SJ-PROBLEM 43.39: Most solar radiation has a wavelength of 1 μm or
less. What energy gap should the material in solar cell have in order
to absorb this radiation ? Is silicon (E g= 1.14 eV) appropriate ?

Answer: 1.24 eV or less; yes

SOLUTION TO SJ-PROBLEM 43.39

Superconductivity
Discovered by H. K. Onnes (1911) ρ

The resistivity of mercury drops to zero at 4.2 K.

The temperature at which normal metal transform to

superconducting state is known as critical temperature (𝑇𝑐)

Materials with high critical temperature (𝑇𝑐) are known as

high temperature superconductor.
0 T
Not all metals transforms to superconducting state. TC

15
 Meissner Effect
When you place a superconductor in a
magnetic field, the field is expelled below T=TC.
Therefore,

• a superconductor is more than a perfect

conductor (resistivity ρ = 0);

• It is also a perfect diamagnet (B= 0).

• If the magnitude of the applied magnetic

field exceeds a critical value
Bc, the material’s superconducting
properties gets destroyed i.e. the field
again penetrates the sample.
A superconductor in the form
of a long cylinder in the
presence of an external magnetic
field.
 The superconductors are perfect conductor ()
 The superconductors are also Perfectly diamagnetic .

Meissner effect is the exclusion of magnetic flux from the interior of

superconductors when their temperature is decreased below the
critical temperature.

A superconductor expels magnetic flux (Meissner effect) by forming

surface currents. These surface currents induced in the
superconductor produce a magnetic field that exactly cancels the
externally applied magnetic field inside the superconductor.
 Normal metal: Magnetic field permeates the sample
 Superconductor: Magnetic flux is expelled by sample

If a magnetic field B is applied on the superconductor and its value is

increased, the superconductivity disappears when B > BC = critical
magnetic field.
 type-I superconductors.

The transition from a superconducting state to a normal state due to the external magnetic field is sharp and abrupt for
type-I superconductors.

type-II superconductors.

The transition from a superconducting state to a normal state due to the external magnetic field is gradually but not so
abrupt. At lower critical magnetic field (BC1), type-II superconductor starts losing its superconductivity. At upper
critical magnetic field (BC2), type-II superconductor completely loses its superconductivity. The state between lower
critical magnetic field and upper magnetic field is known as an intermediate state or mixed state.
Type-1 superconductor Type 2 superconductor
 BCS theory of superconductivity in metals

• Isotope effect: The critical temperature of two different isotopes of same

element is given by , where M is atomic mass. If thermal motion of ions is
assumed to be SHM the frequency of vibrations is also proportional to
Bardeen Cooper Schrieffer
• Two electrons can interact via distortions in the array of lattice
ions so that there is a net attractive force between the
electrons.
• As a result, the two electrons, are bound into an entity called
a Cooper pair. The Cooper pair behaves like a boson (=
particle with integral spin that do not obey the Pauli exclusion
principle).
• At very low temperature, it is possible for all bosons in a
collection of such particles to be in the lowest quantum state.
 BCS theory of superconductivity in metals

• As a result, the entire collection of Cooper pairs in the metal

is described by a single wave function.
Bardeen Cooper Schrieffer
• Above the energy level associated with this wave function is
an energy gap equal to the binding energy of a Cooper pair.
• Under the action of an applied electric field, the Cooper pairs
experience an electric force and move through the metal.

• A random scattering event of a Cooper pair from a lattice ion would represent resistance to
the electric current. Such a collision would change the energy of the Cooper pair because
some energy would be transferred to the lattice ion.

• But there are no available energy levels below that of the Cooper pair (it is already in the
lowest state) and none available above, because of the energy gap. As a result, collisions do
not occur and there is no resistance to the movement of Cooper pairs.
 QUESTIONS – BAND THEORY OF SOLIDS [MARKS]

1. Explain briefly the energy band theory of solids.

2. Explain the classification of solids regarding the electrical properties,

based on their energy band diagram.

3. Indicate the position of (a) Fermi-level (b) donor levels (c) acceptor
levels, in the energy band diagram of a semiconductor.

4. Explain the terms: Conductor, insulator, semiconductor, intrinsic

semiconductor, extrinsic semiconductor, n-type semiconductor, p-type
semiconductor, valence band, conduction band, donor levels, acceptor
levels.
 QUESTIONS – SUPERCONDUCTIVITY [MARKS]

5. Sketch schematically the plot of resistance of a superconducting

material vs temperature, near the critical temperature.

6. Explain Meissner effect.

7. Give a brief account of superconductivity.

8. Explain briefly the BCS theory of superconductivity in metals.

Thank You