CASTING

The process of pouring liquid metal into a mould.

The metal is then cooled, allowed to solidify and then
demoulded. Once solidified, the part is also called a
casting.

It is also called Solidification Processes

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 Solidification Processes
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yq4yMae3aX4

Starting work material is either a liquid or is in a highly

plastic condition, and a part is created through
solidification of the material
 Solidification processes can be classified according to
engineering material processed:
 Metals
 Ceramics, specifically glasses
 Polymers and polymer matrix composites (PMCs)

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 Classification of solidification processes

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 Casting of Metals

Process in which molten metal flows by gravity or other

force into a mold where it solidifies in the shape of
the mold cavity
 The term casting also applies to the part made in the
process
 Steps in casting seem simple:
1. Melt the metal
2. Pour it into a mold
3. Let it freeze
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 Capabilities and Advantages of
Casting
 Can create complex part geometries
 Can create both external and internal shapes
 Some casting processes are net shape; others are
near net shape
 Can produce very large parts
 Some casting methods are suited to mass production

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 Disadvantages of Casting

 Different disadvantages for different casting

processes:
 Limitations on mechanical properties
 Poor dimensional accuracy and surface finish for
some processes; e.g., sand casting
 Safety hazards to workers due to hot molten
metals
 Environmental problems

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 Parts Made by Casting

 Big parts
 Engine blocks and heads for automotive
vehicles, wood burning stoves, machine frames,
railway wheels, pipes, church bells, big statues,
pump housings
 Small parts
 Dental crowns, jewelry, small statues, frying
pans

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 Overview of Casting Technology

 Casting is usually performed in a foundry

Foundry = factory equipped for making molds, melting
and handling molten metal, performing the casting
process, and cleaning the finished casting
 Workers who perform casting are called foundrymen

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 The Mold in Casting

 Contains cavity whose geometry determines part

shape
 Actual size and shape of cavity must be slightly
enlarged to allow for shrinkage of metal during
solidification and cooling
 Molds are made of a variety of materials,
including sand, plaster, ceramic, and metal

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 Open Molds and Closed Molds

 Two forms of mold: (a) open mold and (b) closed mold
for more complex mold geometry with gating system
leading into the cavity

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 Two Categories of
Casting Processes

1. Expendable mold processes – use an expendable

mold which must be destroyed to remove casting
 Mold materials: sand, plaster, and similar
materials, plus binders
 Advantage: more complex shapes possible
 Disadvantage: production rates often limited by
the time to make mold rather than casting itself

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Permanent mold processes – use a permanent mold
which can be used to produce many castings
 Made of metal (or, less commonly, a ceramic
refractory material
 Advantage: higher production rates
 Disadvantage: geometries limited by need to open
mold

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 Advantages and Disadvantages

 More intricate geometries are possible with

expendable mold processes
 Part shapes in permanent mold processes are limited
by the need to open the mold
 Permanent mold processes are more economic in
high production operations

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 Sand Casting Mold

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 Terminology for
Sand Casting Mold
 Mold consists of two halves:
 Cope = upper half of mold
 Drag = bottom half
 Mold halves are contained in a box, called a flask
 The two halves separate at the parting line

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 Forming the Mold Cavity
in Sand Casting
 Mold cavity is formed by packing sand around a
pattern, which has the shape of the part
 When the pattern is removed, the remaining cavity of
the packed sand has desired shape of cast part
 The pattern is usually oversized to allow for
shrinkage of metal during solidification and cooling
 Sand for the mold is moist and contains a binder to
maintain its shape

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 Use of a Core in the Mold Cavity

 The mold cavity provides the external surfaces of the

cast part
 In addition, a casting may have internal surfaces,
determined by a core, placed inside the mold cavity
to define the interior geometry of part
 In sand casting, cores are generally made of sand

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 Gating System

Channel through which molten metal flows into cavity

from outside of mold
 Consists of a downsprue, through which metal enters
a runner leading to the main cavity
 At the top of downsprue, a pouring cup is often used
to minimize splash and turbulence as the metal flows
into downsprue

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 Riser

Reservoir in the mold which is a source of liquid metal

to compensate for shrinkage of the part during
solidification
 The riser must be designed to freeze after the main
casting in order to satisfy its function

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 Heating the Metal

 Heating furnaces are used to heat the metal to

molten temperature sufficient for casting
 The heat required is the sum of:
1. Heat to raise temperature to melting point
2. Heat of fusion to convert from solid to liquid
3. Heat to raise molten metal to desired
temperature for pouring

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©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principals of Modern Manufacturing 4/e SI Version
 Pouring the Molten Metal

 For this step to be successful, metal must flow into all

regions of the mold, most importantly the main cavity,
before solidifying
 Factors that determine success
 Pouring temperature
 Pouring rate
 Turbulence

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 Solidification of Metals

Transformation of molten metal back into solid state

 Solidification differs depending on whether the metal
is
 A pure element or
 An alloy

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 Cooling Curve for a Pure Metal

 A pure metal
solidifies at a
constant
temperature equal
to its freezing
point (same as
melting point)

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 Solidification of Pure Metals

 Due to chilling action of mold wall, a thin skin of solid

metal is formed at the interface immediately after
pouring
 Skin thickness increases to form a shell around the
molten metal as solidification progresses
 Rate of freezing depends on heat transfer into mold,
as well as thermal properties of the metal

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 Solidification of Pure Metals

 Characteristic grain
structure in a casting of
a pure metal, showing
randomly oriented
grains of small size
near the mold wall, and
large columnar grains
oriented toward the
center of the casting

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 Solidification Time

 Total solidification time TTS = time required for casting

to solidify after pouring
 TTS depends on size and shape of casting by
relationship known as Chvorinov's Rule
n
V 
TTS  Cm  
 A
where TTS = total solidification time; V = volume of the
casting; A = surface area of casting; n = exponent
with typical value = 2; and Cm is mold constant.
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 Mold Constant in Chvorinov's
Rule

 Mold constant Cm depends on:

 Mold material
 Thermal properties of casting metal
 Pouring temperature relative to melting point
 Value of Cm for a given casting operation can be
based on experimental data from previous operations
carried out using same mold material, metal, and
pouring temperature, even though the shape of the
part may be quite different
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 What Chvorinov's Rule Tells Us

 Casting with a higher volume‑to‑surface area ratio cools

and solidifies more slowly than one with a lower ratio
 To feed molten metal to the main cavity, TTS for
riser must be greater than TTS for main casting
 Since mold constants of riser and casting will be equal,
design the riser to have a larger volume‑to‑area ratio so
that the main casting solidifies first
 This minimizes the effects of shrinkage

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©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principals of Modern Manufacturing 4/e SI Version
 Shrinkage during Solidification
and Cooling
 (0) starting level of molten metal immediately after
pouring; (1) reduction in level caused by liquid
contraction during cooling

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 Shrinkage during Solidification
and Cooling
 (2) reduction in height and formation of shrinkage cavity
caused by solidification; (3) further reduction in volume
due to thermal contraction during cooling of solid metal

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 Solidification Shrinkage

 Occurs in nearly all metals because the solid phase

has a higher density than the liquid phase
 Thus, solidification causes a reduction in volume per
unit weight of metal
 Exception: cast iron with high C content
 Graphitization during final stages of freezing
causes expansion that counteracts volumetric
decrease associated with phase change

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 Shrinkage Allowance

 Patternmakers correct for solidification shrinkage and

thermal contraction by making the mold cavity
oversized
 Amount by which mold is made larger relative to final
casting size is called pattern shrinkage allowance
 Casting dimensions are expressed linearly, so
allowances are applied accordingly

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 External Chills

 (a) External chill to encourage rapid freezing of the

molten metal in a thin section of the casting; and (b) the
likely result if the external chill were not used

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 Steps in Sand Casting

1. Pour the molten metal into sand mold

2. Allow time for metal to solidify
3. Break up the mold to remove casting
4. Clean and inspect casting
 Separate gating and riser system
5. Heat treatment of casting is sometimes required to
improve metallurgical properties

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 Making the Sand Mold

 The cavity in the sand mold is formed by packing

sand around a pattern, then separating the mold into
two halves and removing the pattern
 The mold must also contain gating and riser system
 If casting is to have internal surfaces, a core must be
included in mold
 A new sand mold must be made for each part
produced

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 Sand Casting Production
Sequence

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 The Pattern

Full‑sized model of part, slightly enlarged to account for

shrinkage and machining allowances in the casting
 Pattern materials:
 Wood - common material because it is easy to
work, but it warps
 Metal - more expensive to fabricate, but lasts
longer
 Plastic - compromise between wood and metal

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 Types of Patterns

 Types of patterns used in sand casting: (a) solid

pattern, (b) split pattern, (c) match‑plate pattern, (d)
cope and drag pattern

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 Core

Full‑scale model of interior surfaces of part

 Inserted into mold cavity prior to pouring
 The molten metal flows and solidifies between the
mold cavity and the core to form the casting's
external and internal surfaces
 May require supports to hold it in position in the mold
cavity during pouring, called chaplets

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 Core in Mold

 (a) Core held in place in the mold cavity by chaplets,

(b) possible chaplet design, (c) casting

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 Desirable Mold Properties

 Strength ‑ to maintain shape and resist erosion

 Permeability ‑ to allow hot air and gases to pass
through voids in sand
 Thermal stability ‑ to resist cracking on contact with
molten metal
 Collapsibility ‑ ability to give way and allow casting to
shrink without cracking the casting
 Reusability ‑ can sand from broken mold be reused to
make other molds?

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 Foundry Sand

Silica (SiO2) or silica mixed with other minerals

 Good refractory properties ‑ for high temperatures
 Small grain size for better surface finish on cast part
 Large grain size is more permeable, allowing gases
to escape during pouring
 Irregular grain shapes strengthen molds due to
interlocking, compared to round grains
 Disadvantage: interlocking reduces permeability

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 Binders Used with
Foundry Sand
 Sand is held together by a mixture of water and
bonding clay
 Typical mix: 90% sand, 3% water, and 7% clay
 Other bonding agents also used in sand molds:
 Organic resins (e g , phenolic resins)
 Inorganic binders (e g , sodium silicate and
phosphate)
 Additives are sometimes combined with the mixture
to increase strength and/or permeability
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 Types of Sand Mold

 Green‑sand molds - mixture of sand, clay, and water

 “Green" means mold contains moisture at time of
pouring
 Dry‑sand mold - organic binders rather than clay
 Mold is baked to improve strength
 Skin‑dried mold - drying mold cavity surface of a
green‑sand mold to a depth of 10 to 25 mm, using
torches or heating lamps

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 Buoyancy in a
Sand Casting Operation
 During pouring, buoyancy of the molten metal tends
to displace the core, which can cause casting to be
defective
 Force tending to lift core = weight of displaced liquid
less the weight of core itself
Fb = Wm ‑ Wc
where Fb = buoyancy force; Wm = weight of molten
metal displaced; and Wc = weight of core

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 Other Expendable Mold
Processes
 Shell Molding
 Vacuum Molding
 Expanded Polystyrene Process
 Investment Casting
 Plaster Mold and Ceramic Mold Casting

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 Permanent Mold
Casting Processes
 Economic disadvantage of expendable mold casting:
 A new mold is required for every casting
 In permanent mold casting, the mold is reused many
times
 The processes include:
 Basic permanent mold casting
 Die casting
 Centrifugal casting

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 The Basic Permanent Mold
Process

Uses a metal mold constructed of two sections

designed for easy, precise opening and closing
 Molds used for casting lower melting point alloys are
commonly made of steel or cast iron
 Molds used for casting steel must be made of
refractory material, due to the very high pouring
temperatures

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 Steps in
Permanent Mold Casting
 (1) Mold is preheated and coated for lubrication and
heat dissipation

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 Steps in
Permanent Mold Casting
 (2) Cores (if any
are used) are
inserted and
mold is closed

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 Steps in
Permanent Mold Casting

 (3) Molten metal is

poured into the mold,
where it solidifies

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 Permanent Mold Casting:
Advantages and Limitations

 Advantages of permanent mold casting:

 Good dimensional control and surface finish
 Rapid solidification caused by metal mold results in
a finer grain structure, so castings are stronger
 Limitations:
 Generally limited to metals of lower melting point
 Simpler part geometries compared to sand casting
because of need to open the mold
 High cost of mold
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 Applications and Metals for
Permanent Mold Casting
 Due to high mold cost, process is best suited to high
volume production and can be automated accordingly

 Typical parts: automotive pistons, pump bodies, and

certain castings for aircraft and missiles
 Metals commonly cast: aluminum, magnesium,
copper‑base alloys, and cast iron
 Unsuited to steels because of very high pouring
temperatures

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 Die Casting

A permanent mold casting process in which molten metal

is injected into mold cavity under high pressure
 Pressure is maintained during solidification, then mold
is opened and part is removed
 Molds in this casting operation are called dies; hence
the name die casting
 Use of high pressure to force metal into die cavity is
what distinguishes this from other permanent mold
processes

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 Die Casting Machines

 Designed to hold and accurately close two mold

halves and keep them closed while liquid metal is
forced into cavity
 Two main types:
1. Hot‑chamber machine
2. Cold‑chamber machine

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 Hot-Chamber Die Casting

Metal is melted in a container, and a piston injects liquid

metal under high pressure into the die
 High production rates
 500 parts per hour not uncommon
 Applications limited to low melting‑point metals that
do not chemically attack plunger and other
mechanical components
 Casting metals: zinc, tin, lead, and magnesium

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 Hot-Chamber Die Casting

 Hot‑chamber die
casting cycle: (1)
with die closed
and plunger
withdrawn,
molten metal
flows into the
chamber

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 Hot-Chamber Die Casting

 (2) plunger forces

metal in chamber to
flow into die,
maintaining pressure
during cooling and
solidification.

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 Hot-Chamber Die Casting

 (3) Plunger is
withdrawn, die is
opened, and
casting is ejected

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 Cold‑Chamber Die Casting
Machine

Molten metal is poured into unheated chamber from

external melting container, and a piston injects metal
under high pressure into die cavity
 High production but not usually as fast as hot‑chamber
machines because of pouring step
 Casting metals: aluminum, brass, and magnesium alloys

 Advantages of hot‑chamber process favor its use on low

melting‑point alloys (zinc, tin, lead)

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 Cold‑Chamber Die Casting Cycle

 (1) With die closed and ram withdrawn, molten metal is

poured into the chamber

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 Cold‑Chamber Die Casting Cycle

 (2) Ram forces metal to flow into die, maintaining

pressure during cooling and solidification

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 Cold‑Chamber Die Casting Cycle

 (3) Ram is withdrawn, die is opened, and part is

ejected

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 Molds for Die Casting

 Usually made of tool steel, mold steel, or maraging

steel
 Tungsten and molybdenum (good refractory qualities)
used to die cast steel and cast iron
 Ejector pins required to remove part from die when it
opens
 Lubricants must be sprayed onto cavity surfaces to
prevent sticking

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 Die Casting:
Advantages and Limitations
 Advantages:
 Economical for large production quantities
 Good accuracy and surface finish
 Thin sections possible
 Rapid cooling means small grain size and good
strength in casting
 Disadvantages:
 Generally limited to metals with low metal points
 Part geometry must allow removal from die

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 Centrifugal Casting

A family of casting processes in which the mold is

rotated at high speed so centrifugal force distributes
molten metal to outer regions of die cavity
 The group includes:
 True centrifugal casting
 Semicentrifugal casting
 Centrifuge casting

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 True Centrifugal Casting

Molten metal is poured into rotating mold to produce a

tubular part
 In some operations, mold rotation commences after
pouring rather than before
 Parts: pipes, tubes, bushings, and rings
 Outside shape of casting can be round, octagonal,
hexagonal, etc , but inside shape is (theoretically)
perfectly round, due to radially symmetric forces

©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principals of Modern Manufacturing 4/e SI Version
 True Centrifugal Casting

 Setup for true centrifugal casting

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 Semicentrifugal Casting

Centrifugal force is used to produce solid castings

rather than tubular parts
 Molds use risers at center to supply feed metal
 Density of metal in final casting is greater in outer
sections than at center of rotation
 Often used on parts in which center of casting is
machined away, thus eliminating the portion where
quality is lowest
 Examples: wheels and pulleys

©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principals of Modern Manufacturing 4/e SI Version
 Semicentrifugal Casting

©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principals of Modern Manufacturing 4/e SI Version
 Centrifuge Casting

Mold is designed with part cavities located away from

axis of rotation, so molten metal poured into mold is
distributed to these cavities by centrifugal force
 Used for smaller parts
 Radial symmetry of part is not required as in other
centrifugal casting methods

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 Centrifuge Casting

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