QUALITY IMPROVEMENT:

PROBLEM SOLVING

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Department of Mathematics and Statistics
 LEARNING OUTCOMES/OPPORTUNITIES

• To understand and utilise a systematic problem-solving process; to

learn to ask the right questions, present information clearly and
unambiguously, and make judgements based on information.

• To understand and utilise a variety of techniques for effective problem

diagnosis and problem solving

• To learn to diagnose and analyse problems that cause variation in the

manufacturing, process, and service industries.

• To introduce and explain the seven tools of quality

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 INTRODUCTION

• Have you ever been lost? Being lost is different from not being able to
find something. In one case, you’re unable to locate an object or place;
in the order, you don’t know where you are. When you find out where
you are, you can figure out where you need to go.

• Dealing with problems can be similar to being lost. Problem solvers

need to know where they stand, what the problem really is, and what
the cause of the problem is before any solutions can be proposed. This
chapter seeks to teach problem solving methods to help identify the
problem and its causes.

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 Conti….

• Problem solving should follow a logical, systematic method. This will place emphasis
on locating and eliminating the root or real cause of a problem. Introduced Quality
Advocates and TQM chapter previously. Dr. Deming’ s Plan-Do-Check-Act (PDCA)
cycle is the systematic approach to problem solving that will be followed in this chapter.

• Organised problem-solving efforts utilise a variety of quality tools for problem analysis.
Some of the tools are flowcharts, histograms, Pareto charts, cause-and-effect
diagrams, check sheets, control charts, and scatter diagrams.

• We will look here at other problem-solving techniques such as : brainstorming, WHY-

WHY diagrams, force-field analysis, and run charts.

• The particular situation needing a solution will dictate which problem-solving

techniques will be used.

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 PLAN
STEPS IN QUALITY IMPROVEMENT
Step 1: Recognising the Problem and Establishing Priorities
• In problem solving, PDCA cycle places a strong emphasis on determining the
current conditions and planning how to approach a problem. In the Plan phase,
problem investigators are looking at the process and products involved to
determine how they are presently performing.
• In this stage, the problem will be investigated and actions will be considered.
• Management involvement and commitment is crucial to the success of any
major problem-solving process.
• Management is ultimately responsible for seeing that problems are isolated and
solved.
• To give emphasis to the importance of solving problems. Information concerning
the problem (s) may have come from a number of different sources, including
but not limited to manufacturing, assembly, shipping, or product design
departments or employees, or customers.

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Figure 1: PDCA cycle

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 Conti…

Technique: Brainstorming

• The purpose of brainstorming is to generate a list of problems, opportunities, or

ideas from a group of people. Everyone present at the session should
participate.

• The discussion leader must ensure that everyone is given an opportunity to

comment and add ideas.

• Critical to brainstorming is that no arguing; no criticism; no negativism; no

evaluation of the ideas; problems, or opportunities take place during the session.

• The length of time allotted to brainstorming varies; sessions may last from 10 to
45 minutes.

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 Conti..

• The result of the session will be a list of ideas, problems, or

opportunities to be tackled. After being listed, the items are sorted and
ranked by category, importance, priority, cost, impact, time, or other
considerations.

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 Example 1:1 : Brainstorming

Thabo Van Wyk, the new Quality Controller at ABC Corporation, has enlisted the help of a variety of ABC
Corporation employees to brainstorm ways to meet the new federal safety requirements related to lawn
mowers.

THABO: I think you all know why we are here today. Did you all get the opportunity to review the new federal
safety requirements? Good. Well, let’s get started by concentrating on design changes to keep fingers and
other body parts away from the blade. I will list the ideas on the board here, while you colleagues call them out.
Remember, we are not here to evaluate ideas. We will do that in the next meeting.

MBALI: How about a guard?

SIPHO: Of course we will have a guard. What do you think these regs call for?

THABO: Sipho, have you forgotten the rules of brainstorming session? No criticizing. Mbali, can you expand on
your concept of guards?

MBALI: I was thinking a guard along the back edge of the housing, something in heavy-duty plastic that would
move with the motion of the lawn mover.

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 Conti….
THABO: Okay (Writes on board.) Heavy-duty plastic rear guard. While we are on the subject of guards,
anyone else have any ideas?

PIETER: We will need some sort of guard over the exit vent.

THABO: (Writes on board.) Guard over exit vent.

SHARON: What about the idea of guarding the hot engine exhaust from the gas tank?

MBALI: That is a serious concern. We should try to design the engine configuration with that in mind.

THABO: (Writes on board.) Engine configuration.

PIETER: What about the reg calling for a quick shutoff? How should we interpret and deal with that?

THABO: (Writes on board.) Quick shut off.

The session continues until a variety of ideas has been generated for dealing with each of the regulations.
AT subsequent meetings these ideas will be discussed and clarified. Several will be refined into changes
for lawn mower design.

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Technique: Pareto Analysis

The Pareto chart is a graphical tool for ranking causes of problems from the most significant to the
least significant. Named after the Italian economist, Vilfredo Pareto, Pareto charts are a graphical
display of the 80-20 rule.

Pareto, during his study of the Italian economy, found that 80 percent of the wealth in Italy as held
by 20 percent of the people, thus the name “80-20 rule”. In 1950 Dr. Joseph Juran applied this
principle to quality control when he noticed that 80 percent of the quality problems. Since then, the
80-20 rule, Pareto charts, has been applied to a number of areas, including scrap rates, sales, and
billing errors.

Pareto charts are a helpful tool for problem analysis. This tool involves ranking the collected data,
usually via a check sheet, with the most commonly occurring problem first and the least last. The
contribution of the each problem to the grand total is expressed as a percentage, and cumulative
percentages are used in compounding the effect of these problems.

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Figure 2: A sample of a Pareto chart

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 Table 1: Nonconformities

Category Number of Percent of Rand Loss /

Complaints Complaints Currency
Loose Threads 14
Incorrect Hemming 8
Material Flaws 2
Stitching Flaws 6
Pattern Alignment Errors 2
Colour Mismatch 6
Trim Errors 3
Button Problems 5

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 Step 2: Forming Quality Improvement Team/ Quality Circles

• Once a problem has been recognised and before the problem is attacked, an
interdisciplinary problem-solving or quality improvement team must be created.

• This team will be given the task of investigating, analysing, and finding a solution to
the problem situation within a specified time frame.

• Sometimes called a quality circle, this problem-solving team consists of people who
have knowledge of the process or problem under study.

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 Conti…

• The team may consist of people from engineering, manufacturing, purchasing, sales,
and/ or design departments. It may even include an outside vendor or a representative
from the customer base.

• During the problem-solving process, the team can be supplemented on an as-needed

basis, with people who have expertise in the areas related directly to the problem
solution.

• Upon the resolution of a project, the team will be disbanded or reorganized to deal with
another problem.

• Upper-management involvement in problem selection has a very positive benefit.

• The teams will quickly become ineffective if the solutions they propose are consistently
turned down or ignored.

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 Step 3: Defining the Problem

• Once established, the quality-improvement or problem-solving team sets out to

clearly define the problem and its scope. A clear problem definition will help the
team focus on the problem itself and avoid chasing causes that are controlling to
but are not the true cause of the problem.

• An excellent technique for finding the root cause (s) of a problem is to ask “Why”
five times.

• WHY-WHY diagrams organise the thinking of a problem-solving group and

illustrate a chain of symptoms leading to the true cause of a problem.

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 Technique: WHY-WHY Diagrams

• A why-why is conducted to identify solutions to a problem that address

it's root cause(s). Rather than taking actions that are merely band-aids,
a why-why helps you identify how to really prevent the issue from
happening again.

• Five whys (or 5 whys) is an iterative interrogative technique used to

explore the cause-and-effect relationships underlying a particular
problem. The primary goal of the technique is to determine the root
cause of a defect or problem by repeating the question "Why?". Each
answer forms the basis of the next question.

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Figure 3: Sample of WHY-WHY diagram

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 Step 4: Analysing the Problem/ Process

• Now that the problem is defined, the problem and its processes are investigated
to identify the potential constraints and determine the sources of difficulties.

• Investigators are seeking a deeper understanding of the problem.

• Information gathered at this stage will help determine potential solutions.

• The analysis must be thorough to uncover any complexities or particulars

involved in or hidden by the problem.

• To understand an involved process, problem solvers often utilise flowcharts.

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Technique: Flowcharts

• A flowchart is a graphical representation of all steps involved in an

entire process of a particular segment of a process.

• Flowcharts use special shapes to represent different types of actions or steps in

a process. Lines and arrows show the sequence of the steps, and the
relationships among them. These are known as flowchart symbols.

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Flowchart Definition

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Figure: Sample of a Flowchart

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 Technique: Force-Field Analysis

• A force-field analysis is a basic tool for root cause analysis that can help you
take action once the root cause has been identified.

• These easy-to-develop charts help a team determine the positive or driving

forces that are encouraging improvement of the process as the forces that
restrain improvement.

• Teams may also choose to use force-field analysis can be used to encourage
action on a problem.

• Once the driving and restraining forces have been identified, the team discusses
how to enhance the driving forces and remove the restraining forces.

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 Using Force-Field Analysis Example

• At a local bank, a team has gathered to discuss meeting the customers' demands for
improved teller window service. One of the major customer desires as revealed by a
survey, is to have more windows open at 9 A.M. So far the meeting has been a less-than-
organised discussion of why more tellers are not at their windows at 9. To remove some of
the finger-pointing and blame-laying, the leader has decided to use force-field analysis to
focus the discussion.

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 Table: Force-Field Analysis solution

Driving Forces Restraining Forces

1. Improving Customer Service by having 1. Money must be ready for brinks pickup.
Windows open

2. Creating shorter lines for customers by 2. Audit Department needs balance sheet by
serving more customers at one time 9 A.M

3. Relieving the stress of morning Teller 3. Balance sheet is complicated,

activities cumbersome, and inadequate.

4. Comptroller needs Petty Cash Sheets,

payroll, and other general ledger information

5. Day begins at 08h30 A.M

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Sample of a Force- Field Analysis

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 Actions

1. Change the starting and ending times of the day.

2. Add more tellers
3. Tell the audit and Comptroller Departments to wait until later in the day.

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 Step 5: Determining possible causes and measuring the process

• Determining the possible causes of a problem requires that the problem be

clearly defined. In step 3, problem solvers used the WHY-WHY diagram to clarify
the problem statement.

• The flowchart in step 4 gave the problem solvers a greater understanding of the
process involved.

• Now the problem statement can be combined with knowledge of the process to
isolate potential causes of the problem.

• An excellent technique for determining causes is the cause-and –effect diagram.

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 Technique: Cause-and –effect diagram

• The cause-and-effect diagram is also called the Ishikawa diagram after Kaoru
Ishikawa, who developed it, and the fish-bone diagram because the completed
diagram resembles a fish skeleton.

• Cause-and-effect diagrams can be used after flowcharts and Pareto charts to

identify the cause (s) of the problem.

• The problem or effect is clearly identified on the right-hand side of the chart, and
the potential causes of the problem are organised on the left-hand side.

• The cause-and-effect diagram also allows the session leader to logically

organise the possible causes of the problem and to focus on one at a time

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Figure: Sample of a Cause-and-Effect Diagram

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 Technique: Check sheets

• A check sheet is a structured, prepared form for collecting and

analysing data. This is a generic data collection and analysis tool that
can be adapted for a wide variety of purposes and is considered one of
the seven basic quality tools.

• Given a list of items of events, the user of a check sheet marks down
the number of times a particular item or event occurs.

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A sample of a Check Sheet

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 Technique: Histograms

• A histogram is a graphical summary of the frequency distribution of the

data.

• Data are organised in a histogram to allow those investigating the

process to see any patterns in the data that would be difficult to see in a
simple table of numbers.

• The data are separated into classes in the histogram.

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Figure: A sample of a Histogram

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 Technique: Scatter Diagrams

• The scatter diagram is a graphical technique that is used to analyse the

relationship between two different variables. Two sets of data are plotted on a
graph.

• The independent variable is recorded on the x axis, dependent variable, the one
being predicted, is displayed on the y axis. From this diagram, the used can
determine if a connection or relationship exists between the two variables being
compared.

• If relationships exists, then steps can be taken to identify process changes to

enhance the relationship.

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Figure: A sample of a Scatter Diagram

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 Technique: Control Charts

• A control chart is a chart with a centerline showing the average of the data
produced. It has upper and lower control limits that are based on statistical
calculations.

• It is used to determine process centering and process variation and to locate

any unusual patterns or trends in the data.

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Figure: A sample of a Control Chart

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 Technique: Run Charts

• Run charts are similar to control charts. They follow a process over
time, reflected on the x axis. The run chart is very good at reflecting
trends in the measurements is taken at a time and graphed on the
chart. The y axis shows the degree of that measurement.

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Figure: A sample of a Run Chart

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 DO
Step 6: Identifying Potential Solutions

• We have been applying problem-solving techniques to find the root cause of a

problem. Once the cause has been identified, it is time to begin proposing
potential solutions.

• This begins the Do section of the PDCA cycle. The best solutions are those that
solve the true problem, and they are found only after the root cause of that
problem has been identified.

• The most significant portion of the problem-solving effort must be concentrated

in the Plan phase.

• Immediate action should be taken to rectify any situation that does not meet
customer’s reasonable needs, requirements, and expectations.

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 CHECK
Step 7: Selecting and Implementing the Solution

• Selecting and implementing the solution is a matter of the project team’s

choosing the best solution for the problem under examination. The
solution should be judged against the four general criteria:

1. The solution should be chosen on the basis of its potential to prevent a

recurrence of the problem.

2. The solution should address the root cause of the problem.

3. The solution should be cost-effective.

4. The solution should be capable of being implemented within a

reasonable amount of time.

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 Step 8: Evaluating the Solution: The Follow-up

• Once implemented and given time to operate, problem-solving actions are

checked to see if the problem has truly been solved. This is the Study stage of
the cycle. To determine if the solution has worked, prior data collected during the
analysis phase of the project should be compared with present data taken from
the process.

• Control charts, histograms, and run charts can be used to monitor the process.
If these formats were used in the original problem analysis, a direct comparison
can be made to determine how well the solution is performing. If the solution is
not correcting the problem, then the process should begin again to determine a
better solution.

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 ACT
Step 9: Ensure Permanence

• The final stage, Action, involves ensuring that the new methods have been
established so that the new level of quality performance can be maintained. This
phase of the quality-improvement permanence” is part of the action phase.

• Methods must be instituted and follow-up checks must be put in place to prevent
problem recurrences from lapses to old routines and methods.

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 Step 10: Continuous Improvement
• A project team’s tasks do not end with the solution of one particular problem.
The quality-and productivity improvement process never ends.

• Once a problem is solved, teams are reformed to “do it all over again”, this time
with a new problem, opportunity, or project.

• Only through continual improvement can a company hop to move toward the
future, improve its customer base, and ensure future profits.

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 SUMMARY

• Teaching the tools of quality improvement and problem solving is actually the
easiest part of the quality-improvement process. Helping individuals and groups
apply those techniques in a problem-solving format is critical and difficult.
• Upper-management involvement in selecting issues to be investigated is
important to the success of a quality-improvement program.
• Brainstorming and Pareto analyses also help to identify where problem-solving
efforts should be concentrated.
• Teach people the techniques and then use brainstorming to encourage them to
uncover problems in their own area and begin to solve them.
• Upper-management should be involved in the entire process, from education to
implementation.
• Upper-management should be the ones providing their people with a push in the
right direction.

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 Lessons Learned

1. Problem solving is the isolation and analysis of a problem and the development of a permanent solution. Problem
solving should be logical and systematic.

2. The following steps should be taken during the problem-solving process:

Step 1: Recognise the problem; establish the priorities

Step 2: Form-quality improvement teams/quality circles

Step 3: Define the problem

Step 4: Analyse the problem/process

Step 5: Determine the possible causes and measure the process

Step 6: Identify potential solutions

Step 7: Select and implement the solution

Step 8: Evaluate the solution and institute the follow-up

Step 9: Ensure stability/ permanence

Step 10: Continuous improvement

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 Conti….

3. The following are techniques used in problem-solving: brainstorming; Pareto analysis:

WHY-WHY diagrams; flowcharts; force-field analysis, cause-and-effect diagrams, check
sheets, histograms, scatter diagrams, control charts and run charts.

4. Problem solvers are tempted to propose solutions before identifying the problem and
performing an in-depth study of the situation.

5. Brainstorming is designed for ide generation. Ideas should not be discussed or

criticised during a brainstorming session.

6. Flowcharts are powerful tools that allow problem solvers to gain in-depth knowledge of
the process.

7. Cause-and –effect diagrams enable the problem solvers to identify the root causes of
concisely stated problems.

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 Discussion Questions/Test your knowledge and all questions

1. Describe the 10 steps of problem-solving.

2. An orange juice producer has found that the fill weights (weight of product per
container) of several of its orange juice products do not meet specifications. If
the problem continues, unhappy customers will stop buying their product.
Outline the steps that they should take to solve this problem. Provide as much
detail as you can.
3. Bicycles are being stolen at a local campus. Campus security is considering
changes in bike rake design, bike parking restrictions, and bike registration to
try to reduce thefts. Thieves have been using hacksaws and bolt cutters to
remove locks from the bikes. Create a problem statement for this situation.
How will an improvement team use the problem statement?
4. Apply the 10 problem-solving steps described in this chapter to a problem you
face(d) at work or in school.

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 Conti…..

5. Brainstorm 10 reasons why the university computer might malfunction.

6. In a customer satisfaction survey at a local fast-food restaurant, the
following complaints were lodged:
Create a Pareto chart using below information.

Complaint Number of Complaints

Cold Food 105
Flimsy Utensils 20
Food Tastes Bad 10
Salad Not Fresh 94
Poor service 15
Food Greasy 9
Lack of Courtesy 5
Lack of Cleanliness 2

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 Conti…

7. Brainstorm 10 reasons why a customer may not feel the service was adequate
at a department store.
8. A local bank a keeping track of the different reasons people phone the bank.
Those answering the phones place a mark on their check sheet in the rows most
representative of the customers’ questions. Given the following check sheet, make
a Pareto diagram.
Question: Comment on what you would do about the high number of calls in the
“Other” column

Credit Card Payment Questions 245

Transfer Call to Another Department 145
Balance Questions 377
Payment Receipt Questions 57
Finance Charges Questions 30
Other 341

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8. Once a Pareto chart has been created, what steps would you take to deal with
the situation given in Problem 7 in your quality-improvement team?
9. Create a WHY-WHY diagram for how you ended up taking this particular class?
10. A mail-order company has a goal of reducing the amount of time a customer
has to wait in order to place an order. Create a WHY-WHY diagram about waiting
on the telephone. Now that you have created the diagram, how would you use it?
11. Apply a WHY-WHY diagram to a project you face at work or in school.
12. Create a flowchart for registering for a class at your school.
13. Create a flowchart for solving a financial and problem at your school.

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THANK YOU

Faculty of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics