Chapter 12.

Multiple Access

1. Random Access
2. Controlled Access
3. Channelization

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 Data Link Layer: Two sublayers
• Data link layer divided into two functionality-oriented sublayers
• IEEE made this division for LANs

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Medium Access Protocols

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 Random Access

• Each station has the right to the medium without being controlled by
any other station
• Collision, a access conflict, if more than one station tries to send

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 ALOHA
• The earliest random access method developed at the Univ. of Hawaii in the
early 1970s
• Designed for a radio (wireless) LAN
• Pure ALOHA and Slotted ALOHA
• Frames in a pure ALOHA network

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 Pure ALOHA Protocol: Procedure
• Binary exponential back-off algorithm

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 Pure ALOHA Protocol
• Pure ALOHA vulnerable time = 2 x Tfr

• The throughput for pure ALOHA is S = G × e −2G .

• The maximum throughput Smax = 0.184 when G= (1/2).

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 Slotted ALOHA
• Pure ALOHA vulnerable time = 2 x Tfr because there is no rule that defines wh
en the station can send
• Slotted ALOHA was invented to improve the efficiency of pure ALOHA

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 Slotted ALOHA
• throughput for slotted ALOHA is S = G × e−G .
• The maximum throughput Smax = 0.368 when G = 1
• Slotted ALOHA vulnerable time = Tfr

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 Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA)
• CSMA
– “Sense before transmit”
– “Listen before talk”
• CSMA can reduce the possibility of collision, but it can not eliminate it

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 Collision in CSMA

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 CSMA: Vulnerable Time
• Vulnerable time for CSMA is the propagation time Tp need
ed for a signal to propagate from one end of the medium to
the other

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 CSMA: Persistence Methods
• Behavior of 1-persistent, Nonpersistent, p-persistent method

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 CSMA: Persistence Methods
• Flow diagram for 1-persistent, Nonpersistent, p-persistent method

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 Persistence Strategy
• Nonpersistent strategy
– Reduces the chance of collision
– Reduces the efficiency of the network
• 1-persistent
– Increases the chance of collision
• p-persistent
– Reduces the chance of collision and improves the effici
ency by combining the other two strategies.

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CSMA/CD (Collision Detection)

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 CSMA/CD: Min. Frame Size
• Example: A network using CSMA/CD has a bandwidth of 10 Mbp
s. If the maximum propagation time (including the delays in the dev
ices and ignoring the time needed to send a jamming signal, as we
see later) is 25.6 μs, what is the minimum size of the frame?

Solution
The frame transmission time is Tfr = 2 × Tp = 51.2 μs. This means, i
n the worst case, a station needs to transmit for a period of 51.2 μs t
o detect the collision. The minimum size of the frame is 10 Mbps ×
51.2 μs = 512 bits or 64 bytes. This is actually the minimum size of
the frame for Standard Ethernet.

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CSMA/CD: Flow Diagram

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CSMA/CD: Energy Level & Throughput
• Energy level during transmission, idleness, or collision

• Throughput of CSMA/CD is greater than that of ALOHA

• The max. throughput occurs at a different value of G and is based on the persistent method and the value of p in the p-persistent approach
• The max throughput is around 50% when G=1 for 1-persistent, up to 90% when G is between 3 and 8 for non-persistent

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 CSMA/CA (Collision Avoidance)
• Invented for wireless network where we cannot detect collisions
• Collision are avoided through the use of CSMA/CA’s three strategies:
the interframe space, the contention windows, and acknowledgement

• IFS can also be used to define the priority of a station or a frame

• If the station finds the channel busy, it does not restart the timer of the contention window; it stops the timer and restarts it when the channel becomes idle

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CSMA/CA: Flow Diagram

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 Controlled Access
• The stations consult one another to find which station has
the right to send
• Reservation/Polling/ Token passing
• Reservation access method

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Polling: Select and Poll Functions

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 Token Passing
• Logical Ring and physical topology

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 Channelization: FDMA
• FDMA
– Available bandwidth of the common channel is divided into bands
that are separated by guard bands
– FDMA is an access method in data link layer protocol. But, FDM
is a physical layer technique

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 Channelization: TDMA
• TDMA
– The bandwidth is just one channel that is timeshared between different stations
– TDMA is an access method. But, TDM is a physical layer technique

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 Channelization: CDMA
• One channel carries all transmissions simultaneously
• Two properties: If we multiply each code by another, we get 0. If we
multiply each code by itself, we get 4
• Data = (d1.c1 + d2.c2 + d3.c3 + d4.c4) .c1
= d1.c1.c1 + d2.c2.c1 + d3.c3.c1 + d4.c4.c1 = 4.d1

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 CDMA: Chips
• Sequence of numbers called chips

• Orthogonal sequences have the following properties:

– Each sequence is made of N elements, where N is the number of stations
– If we multiply a sequence by a number, every element in the sequence is multiplied by that
element (scalar multiplication)
– If we multiply two equal sequence, element by element, and add the results, we get N (inner
product)
– If we multiply two different sequence, element by element, and add the results, we get 0
– Adding two sequence means adding the corresponding elements. The result is another
sequence
• Data representation in CDMA

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 CDMA: Encoding and Decoding
• Show how four stations share the link during a 1-bit interval

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 CDMA: Signal Level
• Digital signal created by four stations in CDMA using NRZ-L for
simplicity

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 CDMA: Decoding
• Show how station 3 can detect the data by station 2 by using the code
for station 2
• Decoding of the composite signal for one in CDMA

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 CDMA: Sequence Generation
• To generate chip sequence, we use a Walsh table
• The number of sequence in a Walsh table needs to be N = 2m

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 Sequence Generation: Example
• Find the chips for a network with
a. Two stations b. Four stations

Solution

a. For a two-station network, we have

[+1 +1] and [+1 −1].

b. For a four-station network we have

[+1 +1 +1 +1], [+1 −1 +1 −1],
[+1 +1 −1 −1], and [+1 −1 −1 +1].

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