GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

CHAPTER 8

SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS
By
SITI NOORAIIN MOHD RAZALI
Content Title
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Types of foundation
8.3 Foundation load
8.4 Theory of bearing capacity
8.4.1 Effect of ground water table on bearing capacity
8.5 Inclined load
8.6 Eccentric load
8.7 Footing on slopes
8.8 Footing size
8.9 Contact pressure
8.1 Introduction

• Foundation- transfer load directly to the soil stratum

underneath it.
• A foundation should be qualified to the two basic
functions:
• Safety factor against shear failure for the soil bearing
between 2.5 and 3 (normally stated)
• Footing settlement shall not be excessive.
• If soil near surface has sufficient bearing capacity to
support load structure; the soil is competent.
• Footing is the small separate portion of the structure
that support the whole load.
8.2 Types of foundation
TYPES EXPLAINATION FIGURE

Single footing for the purpose analysis, is strong

enough as flat footing, square,
exerted on by concentrated load or
distributed load

Combination of footing supports two columns

footing

Continuous or where the size is extended in one

wall footing direction to support wall–like load
 TYPES EXPLAINATION FIGURE

strip footing Two or more footing connected by

a strap

raft footing Huge pad footing that support

several footing that are not in a
straight line
Pad Foundation

Strip Foundation
Foundation shall meet to satisfy the three criteria :

1) Shall be located at the right location vertically

and horizontally to reduce the influence of
external load.
2) Free from damage and bearing capacity failure.
3) Save from excessive settlement.
FOUNDATION DESIGN PROCEDURES

CALCULATE
LOAD
BEARING
CAPACITY SIZE OF
FOUNDATION
Design
foundation
structure

SITE SUB
SOIL INFO DEPTH &
CHECK
LOCATION
allowable
(bearing Total
capacity, sliding, settlement
overturning)
8.3 Foundation load
• All loads has to be calculated in designing
foundation
Types of load

Dead load Total weight of materials & permanent accessories install on a

structure [ finishing]
Live load Temporary weight on building [human, furniture]

Wind load Not all considered as live load and applied on any surface of the
structure.
Lateral earth Lateral load which acted on the substructure part of the building
pressure
Hydrostatic pressure Produce lateral pressure, result in hydrostatic uplift (buoyancy) to
the bottom of the structure base
Earthquake force Act laterally, horizontally or torsionally on a building structure from
various directions.
 8.4 Theory of bearing capacity
• Bearing capacity, q
• Soil ability to support the whole foundation and superstructure

• Ultimate bearing capacity, qult or qu

• Loading per area that will just cause shear failure in soil

• Allowable bearing capacity, qall or qa

• Loading per area that the soil is able to support without unsafe
movement which is ultimate bearing capacity divide by safety
factor.
• Also frequently referred to as design bearing capacity, qdes.

qult
qa 
FS *FS used is between 2.5 to 3
• Footing design should ensure the following :
• Collapse of footing structure
• Excessive settlement

• Basic principles of (Terzaghi and Peck, 1967)

o Least load Q in Figure 3, applied that cause failure is the most critical;

hence the ultimate bearing capacity, qult is the least load Q divide by
footing’s area – the area that in contact with the soil beneath.
o A wedge of soil under the footing moves downward with the footing.
The downward movement is resist by the shear resistance along slip
surface cde and cfg and by the sliding wedge of acfg and bcde.
3 PRIMARY TYPES OF BEARING CAPACITY FAILURES OF FOUNDATION

A bearing capacity failure is defined as a foundation failure that occurs when

the shear stresses in the soil exceed the shear strength of the soil. Bearing
capacity failures of foundations can be grouped into three categories, as follows:

1. General Shear Failure

• The ultimate bearing capacity has been
defined as the bearing stress that causes a
sudden catastrophic failure of the
foundation.
• As shown in Fig-1, a general shear failure
ruptures and pushes up the soil on both
sides of the footing.
• A general shear failure occurs for soils that
are in a dense or hard state.
2. Local Shear Failure
• As shown in Fig-2, local shear failure involves
rupture of the soil only immediately below the
footing.
• There is soil bulging on both sides of the footing, but
the bulging is not as significant as in general shear.
• Local shear failure can be considered as a
transitional phase between general shear and
punching shear.
• Because of the transitional nature of local shear
failure, the bearing capacity could be defined as the
first major nonlinearity in the load-settlement curve
(open circle) or at the point where the settlement
rapidly increases (solid circle).
• A local shear failure occurs for soils that are in a
medium dense or firm state.
3. Punching Shear Failure
• As shown in Fig-3, a punching shear failure does
not develop the distinct shear surfaces associated
with a general shear failure.
• For punching shear, the soil outside the loaded
area remains relatively uninvolved and there is
minimal movement of soil on both sides of the
footing.
• The process of deformation of the footing
involves compression of soil directly below the
footing as well as the vertical shearing of soil
around the footing perimeter.
• As shown in Fig-3, the load settlement curve does
not have a dramatic break and for punching
shear, the bearing capacity is often defined as the
first major non linearity in the load-settlement
curve (open circle).
• A punching shear failure occurs for soils that are
in a loose or soft state.
 Ultimate bearing capacity (formula)
Terzaghi’s bearing capacity factors

(i) Continuous footing :

ultimate bearing qult  cN c   1D f N q  0.5 2 BN (1.2)
capacity
radius of
distance between soil surface
circular footing
(ii) Circular footing : and base of footing

qult  1.2cN c   1D f N q  0.6 2 RN

OR
soil cohesion (1.3)
qult  1.2cN c   1D f N q  0.3 2 BN
breadth of footing
(iii)
Square qult  1.2cN c   1D f N q  0.4 2 BN (1.4)
footing:
effective unit weight for above base soil effective unit weight for below base soil
(kN/m3) 3
• Terzaghi’s bearing capacity factors are functions of
soil’s angle of internal friction , Ø.

• Every bearing capacity factor has influence on the

value of ultimate bearing capacity :
• Value of Nq : influence of surcharge
• Value of Nc : influence of cohesion,
• Value of Nγ : influence of soil weight and breadth or radius of
footing

• Values of Nc, Nq, Nγ for all bearing capacity shall be

determined from Figure 4
 Cohesive soil:
Ø=0
eg: clay, silt

Non cohesive:
c=0
eg: sand

Figure 4: Chart of Terzaghi’s

bearing capacity factors and
angle of internal friction , Ø.
• Equations 1.2 to 1.4 are used for cohesive and
cohesionless soil
• Figure 5 shows dense sand and hard clay that produce
general shear while loose sand and soft clay produce
local shear.

Figure 5 : Relation between load and settlement of a footing

for cases of local shear and general shear.
• In local shear equations 1.2 to 1.4 cohesion, c is replaced by c`
where 2
c'  c (1.8)
3

• Terms of Nc, Nq and Nγ are replaced by N’c, N’q and N’γ where the
latter is determined from Figure 4 by using value of Ø modified, Ø’
by the following equation :-
12 
 '  tan  tan   (1.9)
3 
• For loose sand and soft clay, terms N’c, N’q, N’γ and c’ are used in
equations 1.2 to 1.4.
• For cohesive soils, shear strength at its critical state only after the
completion of construction process, at which where the shear
strength only has cohesion component (c) and in this case Ø = 0
(internal friction angle is taken as zero).
Example 1.1
• Given ;
A strip of wall footing 1.2 m wide supported by uniform
deposit of clay as in Figure 7.
Unconfined compressive strength of the soil, q u = 122kN/m2,
Soil unit weight, γ = 19.68 kN/m3.
Groundwater was no encountered during soil exploration.
Footing depth, Df = 0.6 m.

• Find :
Ultimate bearing capacity of the footing. Allowable load for the
wall with safety factor, FS = 3.
Solution:-

For continuous wall footing :

0.6m

qult  cN c   1D f N q  0.5 2 BN

qu 122kN / m 2
c   61kN / m 2
2 2
Using c>0, Ø =0 analysis for cohesive soil, when Ø =0.
Figure 4 gives Nc=5.14, Nq=1.0, dan Nγ=0

   
qult  cN c   1 D f N q  0.5 2 BN  61kN / m 2 5.14  1.0 19.68kN / m3 0.6m   0
 313.54kN / m 2  11.81kN / m 2  0  325.35kN / m 2

325.35kN / m 2
wa  qa  B   1.2m  130.14kN / m
3
Figure 4: Chart of Terzaghi’s
bearing capacity factors and
angle of internal friction , Ø.
Example 1.2

Given :
Square pad footing with sides of 1.6 m located 1.4 m below
the ground surface
The effect of groundwater is negligible
The subsoil consist of stiff cohesive soil with unconfined
compressive strength of qu = 145 kN/m2.
The unit weight is 19.68 kN/m2.

Find :  
Allowable bearing capacity, qall using a safety factor of 3.5.
Solution:-

For square footing :

qult  1.2cN c   1 D f N q  0.4 2 BN 

c=qu/2=145/2 = 72.5
kN/m2

Using c>0, Ø =0 analysis for cohesive soil, when Ø =0. Figure 4 gives Nc=5.14, Nq=1.0,

dan Nγ=0

qult  1.272.55.14  19.681.4(1)  0  474.7kN / m 2

qall = 474.7kN/m2/3.5 = 135.64 kN/m2 (with FS = 3.5)

Qall= 135.64kN/m2 x (1.6m x1.6m) = 347.23 kN

Example 1.3
Given: Circular footing with diameter of 1.45 m is to be constructed below the
ground surface at 1.25 m.
Subsoil is consist of dense soil having the following strength parameters:
Internal friction angle, Ø = 30o, Cohesion, c = 46.8 kN/m2, The effect of
groundwater is negligible

Find : The total allowable load (including column load, weight of footing, and
weight of soil surcharge) that the footing can carry if FS=3.
Solution : (for dense soil – hence general shear condition)
 Cohesive soil:
Ø=0
eg: clay, silt

Non cohesive:
c=0
eg: sand

Figure 4: Chart of Terzaghi’s

bearing capacity factors and
angle of internal friction , Ø.
8.4.1 Effect of ground water table on
bearing capacity
• Terms γ2BNγ and γ1DfNq require modification
• If water table is at or above the footing’s
base, soil submerged unit weight shall be
used, γ’ which equals (saturated unit
weight, γsat – unit weight of water, γw) this
term should be used in equations (1.2)
hingga (1.4).

• If the water table is at the distance of B

(footing width) or more from the footing
base, then the effect of the water is
negligible – hence the full unit weight is to
be used, Figure 10
8.4.1 Effect of ground water table on
bearing capacity
• If the water table below the footing
but at less than B distance – the
value of unit weight shall be linearly
interpolate value for effective unit
weight γ’.
• If the water table on the earth
surface, therefore the value of
effective unit, γ’ shall be used
entirely.
Example 1.4
Given :
A square footing with dimensions of 2.2 m
X 2.2 m constructed as shown in Figure 11.
Water table is on the surface.
Subsoil is soft and loose uniform deposit.
The result of laboratory test is as shown :
Internal friction angle, Ø = 25°
Cohesion,c = 16.8kN/m2
Unit weight, γ1= γ2 = 16.32kN/m3

Find:
Allowable load, Qall that the footing can
sustain with SF of 3.
Solution:-
8.5 Inclined load

• A footing subjected to by an inclined load can be

resolved into vertical and horizontal load, Figure 12.
• Bearing capacity analysis is conducted in the same
manner as previously explained. The bearing
capacity calculated then must be corrected by an Ri
factor which obtained in Figure 13.
• The footing’s stability shall be checked by
calculating the FS against sliding, in Chapter on
Retaining Wall.
Figure 12: Footing subjected to an inclined load
 α α
Figure 13: Inclined load factor, Ri for (a) horizontal footing (b) inclined footing
Example 1.5

Given:
A square footing (1.5 m x 1.5 m) exerted by an
inclined load as shown in Figure 14.
Required :
The safety factor against bearing capacity
failure.

Solution;

For square :
qult  1.2cN c   1 D f N q  0.4 2 BN 

Figure 14: Shallow footing with inclined load

8.6 Eccentric load

• Foundation design is more complicated if subjected to

eccentric load.
• Two methods to analyze bearing capacity for
eccentric load :
• Useful width concept
• Reduction factors
 (i) Useful width concept :
Figure 15, shows the point of concentrated load
with eccentricity in b direction. Shaded region
is assumed to be the main contact area of the
footing base due the load. The shaded area
equal to :

A  L  B  2eb 

This method based on linear bearing capacity

reduction and strictly for cohesive soil.

Figure 15: Useful width method for

bearing capacity determintion
on cohesive soil
 Cohesive – linear correlation
(ii) Reduction Factor: Cohesionless – parabolic correlation

• Assuming that the load is

applied at the centroid of
the footing.
• Corrected bearing capacity
is estimated by multiplying
with reduction factor (Re)
obtained from Figure 16.

Figure 16: Eccentric load reduction

factor.
Example 1.6
Given :
A foundation with dimension of 1.5 m X 1.5 m
located 1.4 m below ground surface.
The footing is subjected to an eccentric load of 350
kN, Figure 17.
Subsoil is the deposit of cohesive soil with the
following parameters : qu = 200 kN/m2, γ1 = 20.40
kN/m3 and γ2 = 19.80 kN/m3
The effect of groundwater is negligible.

Find :
Figure 17: Footing with
Factor of safety against bearing capacity failureby eccentric load
using both methods:
Solution:-

Df= 1.4 m
8.7 Footing on slopes

• Ultimate bearing capacity for continuous foundation

on slopes can be determined by using the following
equation :
1
qult  cN cq  BN q (on slope) (1.11)
2
• Where Ncq and Nγq are bearing capacity factors for
footing on slope
• Bearing capacity factors used in equation 1.11 are
obtained from Figure 19 and Figure 20.
• For square and circular footing on slopes, the assumption to made
is the ratios of their bearing capacities on the slope to their bearing
capacities on level ground are in the same proportions as the ratio
of bearing capacities of continuous footings on slopes to the
bearing capacities of the continuous footings on level ground.

 qult c..or.. s..on.. ground..level 

qult c..or.s. footing..on..slope  qult continuous.. footing..on..slope  
 qult continuous..on.. ground..level 
 Figure 19 : Bearing capacity
factors for continuous footing on
face of slope (a) cohesive soil (b)
cohesionless soil
 
Figure 20: Bearing capacity factors for continuous footing
on top of slope (a) cohesive soil (b) cohesionless soil
Example 1.7
A bearing wall is to be located close to the slope as
shown in Figure 1.21. Ground water located at a
great depth. Calculate the allowable bearing capacity
if factor safety of 3 is used.

1m

Figure 21: Footing for wall on slope

Solution:-
1
qult  cN cq  BN q
2
c = 0; γ = 19.5kN/m3; B = Kenapa
1.0m
from Figure 8.20; with Ǿ = 30°; β=30°;
soklan close
to slope tp
b/B =1.5/1.0 =1.5; Df/B = 1.0/1.0 = 1; Nγq=40
pengiraan
1 1
qult  cN cq  BN q  0  19.5kN / m 2 1m 40   390kN / m 2 kat slope?
2 2
390kN / m 2
qa   130kN / m 2
3
Figure 20: Bearing capacity factors for continuous footing
on top of slope (a) cohesive soil (b) cohesionless soil
 Example 1.8

Same conditions as in Example 1.7 except the

footing is constructed on slope surface with safety
factor of 3.
Solution:-

From Example 8.7 : (qult)continuous footing on slope = 390kN/m2

Figure 4, with Ǿ=30°; values of Nc = 30, Nq = 18, dan Nγ = 16

qult square.. footing..on.. ground..level  1.2cN c  D f N q  0.4BN 
 0  19.50kN / m 3 1m 18  0.419.50kN / m 3 1m 16   475.8kN / m 2

qult continuous.. footing..on.. ground..level  cN c  D f N q  0.5BN 

 0  19.50kN / m 3 1m 18  0.519.50kN / m 3 1m 16  507 kN / m 2
Substitute into equation :
 qult c..or .. s.. on.. ground .. level 
qult square. footing..on.. slope  qult continuous.. footing..on.. slope  
 qult continuous..on.. ground ..level 
2  475.8kN / m 
2
 390kN / m  2 
 366kN / m 2
 507 kN / m 
366kN / m 2
thus.....qa square.. footing.. on.. slope..   122kN / m 2
3

Re-calculate for circular footing : (qa=114 kN/m2; Qa=89.5kN)

8.8 Footing size

• After the allowable footing size is determined, the

sizing of the footing shall be determined.

column load kN 

Area of footing 
bearing capacity kN / m 2  (1.13)
Example 1.9

Given :
Footing in Figure 1.22 was constructed below stiff
clay uniform deposit. Footing is subjected to load of
168 kN/m. Calculate the size of the footing with
safety factor of 3.5
Solution:-

qult  cN c   1 D f N q  0.5 2 BN 
 142.4 
  
5.14  17.8kN / m 1.2m 1  0
3

 2 
 387.3kN / m 2
387.3
qa   110 .7 kN / m 2 ;
3.5
 footing width
168.kN / m
B 2
 1.52 m
110 .7 kN / m
Example 1.10

Given :
A square footing located on deposit of stiff clay with
unconfined compression strength (qu) of 115 kN/m2.
Footing is located 1.2 m below the surface and sustain a load
of 1250 kN. Unit weight of clay is 19.60 kN/m3. Ground
water has negligible effect on the bearing capacity of the
footing.
- Determine the dimension of square footing with FS = 3.
- Re-calculate the diameter of a circular footing used if
using the same safety factor. Footing is located 1.5 m below
and sustain 1500 kN of load has a value of qu= 124 kN/m2
Solution:-
qu 115 kN / m 2
c   57.5kN / m 2 ; γ1 = γ2 = 19.6 kN/m3 ; Df = 1.2 m;
2 2

qult  1.2cN c   1D f N q  0.4 2 BN

    
 1.2 57.5kN / m 2 5.14   19.6kN / m3 1.2m 1.0   0.4 19.6kN / m3 Bm0 
 378.5kN / m 2

qult 378.5kN / m 2
qa    126kN / m 2
FS 3

Contact area needed :

1250kN
A 2
 9.92m 2 ; B2=9.92m2; B=3.15m
126kN / m

The possible size : 3.2m x 3.2m

Re-calculate if circular footing is used (B=3.55)
8.9 Contact pressure

• Contact pressure is referred to as the pressure

between a footing’s base and the underlying soil
below.
• Contact pressure can be calculated by using the
flexural formula:
 Q Mxy M yx
q  
A Ix Iy

Where :

q = contact pressure
Q = total vertical axial load
A = footing area
Mx,My = total moment in x and y direction
x,y = distance from centroid to the outer most point where the contact
pressure is computed along respective x and y axes
lx,ly = moment of about x and y axes (right hand rule)
Example 1.12
Given
• A footing of 1.5 m X 1.5 m in dimension with centric
axial loading of 225 kN. Unit weight of soil is 18.84
kN/m3 and the unit weight of concrete is 23.55 kN/m3.
The unconfined compression for the cohesive soil is 144
kN/m2.
Determine
• Sketch the problem and label the necessary data.
• Contact pressure and safety factor against bearing
capacity failure.

γsoil = 18.84 kN/m3

γconcrete = 23.55 kN/m3
 
Thank You