UNIT - 02

Solar Photovoltaic Technologies

Solar Photovoltaic Technologies
• Solar PV is a semiconductor device which
coverts sunlight directly into electricity.

• A solar PV panel, when exposed to sunlight

generates voltages and current at its output
terminal

• The higher is the intensity of the

sunlight, the more will be the electricity
generated from it,
• The electricity that is generated from a
PV module is DC in nature.
• The conversion of DC power to AC
power can be achieved using a device
called inverter
Solar PV Technology : Advantages & Limitations
• Solar PV technology uses sunlight as input and
gives electrical energy as an output, which is a
direct conversion of light into electricity.
• Unlike other renewable energy technologies like
wind, biomass and solar thermal where other
intermediate steps are required to convert an
input energy to electricity
• Solar PV technologies use semiconductor
materials( having properties in between metals like
aluminum and insulator like plastic ) for
conversion of light into electricity.
• It does not have any moving parts in it
and therefore does not require any
maintenance or require very little
maintenance.
• Renewable energy technologies like
biomass, wind energy etc. having moving
parts and requires some maintenance.
• Solar PV modules cannot produce
electricity during the time when there is no
light, like during the night and during
cloudy days.
 How PV Cells Work?

Florida Solar Energy Center

• Solar PV modules produce power output
proportional to their size.
• A PV module can produce as small as one thousand
of a watt ( one milli – watt ) such small power is
required for our wrists watches and calculaters.
• Normally PV modules are available for the sizes
from 5 watt to 300 watt.
• For instance, 10,000 solar PV modules of 100 watt
would together produce about one megawatt of DC
power
 What is Solar cell?
• Solar cell is also called • Symbol of Solar cell:
as photovoltaic cell and
this is a device which
converts light energy
into electrical energy
by using photovoltaic
effect. Solar cell is
basically a normal PN
Junction diode.
Construction of Solar cell
WORKING PRINCIPLE
•  Photons in sunlight  hit the solar panel and are
absorbed by semiconducting materials, such as
silicon.
• Electrons are knocked loose from their atoms,
causing an electric potential difference. Current
starts flowing through the material to cancel the
potential and this electricity is captured.
• Due to the special composition of solar
cells, the electrons are only allowed to
move in a single direction.
• An array of solar cells converts solar
energy into a usable amount of Direct
Current  (DC) electricity.
• Material used-Si, Cadmium sulphide,
Gallium arsenide, etc.
Solar cell to Solar farm
• Solar cell is the basic building module and it is
in octagonal shape and in bluish black color.
• Each cell produces 0.5 voltage. 36 to 60 solar
cells in 9 to 10 rows of solar cells are joined
together to form a solar panel.
• For commercial use up to 72 cells are
connected. By increasing the number of cells
the wattage and voltage can be increased.
• The thickness of solar panel is in the range 2.5
to 4cm. Many modules together form the solar
array.
 PV Basics
• A solar cell is a small semiconductor device which has a light sensitive
N-P junction. When solar light rays strike the N‑P junction, DC e.m.f. is
generated with P terminal as positive and N‑terminal as negative.
 
• Nominal ratings of a typical single PV‑cell when exposed to full sun light
are:
  - Voltage 0.45 V, DC
- Current 0.75 A, DC
- Power 0.33 W
  
• When exposed to sun light, the solar cell acts like a tiny DC cell. Several
Solar cells are connected in series, parallel to get desired voltage, current and
power.
 
VI CHARACTERISTICS
• The fill factor is defined as the ratio of the

actual maximum obtainable power  to the

product of the open circuit voltage and short

circuit current.

• It evaluates the performance of solar cells.

FF = ImaxVmax / Isc Voc

Maximum Conversion Efficiency
max = ( Imax Vmax ) / ( ITAc )

Where,
IT = Incident solar flux and

Ac = Area of the cell

 Electrical Characteristics of a PV Cell
 The amount of power available from a PV device is determined
by;
 the type and area of the material
 the intensity of the sunlight; and
 the wavelength of the sunlight

Fig. Current & voltage output of a solar cell at different light intensities
 Electrical Characteristics of a PV Cell

• An important feature of PV cells is

– V does not depend on its size; remains constant with changing
light intensity

• But, I  light intensity and size

• The power output of a solar cell can be  by

tracking or concentrators
- But, the complexity of the mechanisms + need to cool the cells makes
it unfavorable.
PV cells, Modules and Arrays
• Cells are the building block of PV systems
–Typically generate 1.5 - 3 watts of power

• Modules/panels are made up of multiple cells

• Arrays are made up of multiple modules

–A typical array costs about $5 – $6/watt

• Still need lots of other components to make this work

• Typical systems cost about $8/watt

Elements of a PV System
(a) a PV panel array, ranging from two to many
hundreds of panels;

(b) a control panel, to regulate the power from the

panels;

(c) a power storage system, generally comprising

of a number of specially designed batteries;

(d) an inverter, for converting the DC to AC power

(eg 240 V AC)

(e) backup power supplies such as diesel startup

generators (optional)
(f) framework and housing for the system
(g) trackers and sensors (optional)

Total system cost = ~Rs. 500 / watt

 PV Components
Stand Alone Solar PV System

Battery

Grid Connected Solar PV System

 TYPES
• Mono - crystalline Silicon Cells
• Polycrystalline Silicon Cells
• Amorphous Silicon (Thin-Film)
MONO-CRYSTALLINE
SILICON CELLS

• These are made using

cells sliced from a single
cylindrical crystal of
silicon, this is the most
efficient photovoltaic
technology.
• converting around 15%
of the sun's energy into
electricity.
MONO-CRYSTALLINE
CELLS IN MODULE
POLYCRYSTALLINE
SILICON CELLS
• It is known as multi-crystalline
cells, these are made from cells
cut from an ingot of melted
and recrystallised silicon.
• they are generally cheaper to
produce than mono-crystalline
cells,
POLY-CRYSTALLINE CELLS IN
MODULE (PANNEL)

• slightly less
efficient, with
average efficiencies
of around 12%.
MONO Vs POLY-CRYSTALLINE
PANEL
AMORPHOUS SILICON
(AKA THIN-FILM)
• Amorphous silicon cells are
made by depositing silicon
in a thin homogeneous
layer onto a substrate.
• the cells can be thinner
hence it is called as"thin
film" PV.
• Efficiency is 10%
 Is my site adequate?
There are 3 factors:

Systems installed must have a southern exposure, for

maximum daily power output.

The southern exposure must be free of obstructions such

as trees, mountains, and buildings that might shade the
modules (Summer and Winter paths of sun).

Systems must also have appropriate terrain and sufficient

space to install the PV system.
 Solar PV Dependencies
• Location, Location, Location !
• Latitude
– Lower latitudes better than higher latitudes

• Weather
– Clear sunny skies better than cloudy skies
– Temperature not important

• Direction solar arrays face

– South preferred, east and west acceptable

• Absence of shade
– Trees, Flatirons, etc.
• Module temperature affects the output power
 Solar PV Array Design
• Array Flat Panel
– Remains in a constant fixed position

• Array tilt (equal to latitude best)

– Increase solar radiation by 10-20% compared to 0% tilt
– Sunnier locations benefit more

• Array azimuth (180° best)

– Directly south
 Solar PV Array Tracking
• Array 1-axis tracking
– Tracks sun across the sky during each day
– Stays at a constant tilt
– Increase solar radiation by 25-30% compared to no tracking
– Sunnier locations benefit more

• Array 2-axis tracking

– Tracks sun across the sky during each day
– Adjusts tilt – more in winter, less in summer
– Increase solar radiation by 33-38%
– Sunnier locations benefit more

Ch.3 Photovoltaics ME 470 34

 How to size the system?
 It is necessary to know the energy needs, which you
figure by listing all your daily loads, such as lights, TV,
radios or batteries.

 To determine total energy consumption, wattage of the

appliance should be multiplied by the number of hours
used in a day.

 After adding the totals for each appliance, you can

decide what power output you need for your PV system.

Ch.3 Photovoltaics ME 470 35

Typical Cost of Solar PV Modules

PV panel rating watt

No Cost ( Rs )
( peak ), Wp

1 10 500
2 20 1000
3 40 2000
4 75 3750
 TYPICAL COST OF BATTERIES
Battery rating Voltage
Cost
No Amp-hour rating
( Rs )
( Ah ) ( volts )
1 40 12 3300
2 60 12 3400
3 90 12 4650
4 110 12 5000
5 150 12 9500
SPECIFICATION OF AN INVERTER
1000 VA- 9 kVA
Rated Power 5 kVA-8kVA
3000 VA -15 kVA

24 V/36
Input Voltage 12 V/24 V 36 V/48 V
V/48 V

220 V(AC) & 220 V(AC) & 220 V(AC) &

Output Voltage
110 V(AC) 110 V(AC) 110 V(AC)

Output Frequency 50 Hz/60 Hz 50 Hz/60 Hz 50 Hz/60 Hz

Full sine Full sine Full sine

Output Waveform
wave wave wave
Typical Cost of Inverter
No System ( kVA ) Cost ( Rs )

1 1 5000
2 2 7000
3 3 9000
4 4 12000
5 5 15000
 TYPICAL POWER RATINGS OF
COMMON APPLIANCES
Power
Component
Rating

CFL ( watts ) 8 to 18
Fan ( watts ) 60
Tube + Cu choke ( watts ) 55
Tube + Electronic choke ( watts ) 47
In order to design PV system, number of parameters about
the component used in the system should be known.
Following assumptions can be made ( for actual design real
data should be obtained ):
Assumptions:
1.Inverter converts DC into AC power with an efficiency of
about 90 %.
2.Battery charging and discharging cycle efficiency is about
90 %.
3.Also all the charge of a battery cannot be used. And one
has to consider maximum depth of discharge of a battery.
This can vary widely. Here we are assuming 80 % depth of
discharge, meaning only 80 % of the total capacity of the
battery is useful.
 The combined efficiency of inverter and battery will be
calculated as,
Combined efficiency = inverter efficiency x battery
efficiency
= 0.9 x 0.9 = 81 %

 Battery voltage used for operation = 12 volts

 Battery capacity = 120 Ah
 Sunlight available in a day = 8 h / d
( equivalent of peak radiation )
 Operation of lights and fan = 6 h/d on PV
panels
 PV panel power rating = 40 Wp
Operating factor:
In the operating condition the actual output power of a PV
module is less.
Thus, a factor called ‘operating factor’ is used to estimate the
actual output from a PV module.
The operating factor can vary between 0.60 and 0.90 and 0.90
( implying that output power is 60 to 80 % lower than rated
output power ) in normal operating conditions, depending on
temperature, dust on module, etc.
Thus the actual output power of a 40 Wp PV panel
= 0.75 ( operating factor ) x 40 = 30 Watt.

Remember Wp, meaning, watt ( peak ), gives only peak power

output of a PV panel.
A solar PV system design can be done in four steps:
1. Load estimation
2. Estimation of number of PV panels
3. Estimation of battery bank
4. Cost estimation of the system

Steps to design a solar PV system

Step 1 : Find out total energy requirement of the system
( total load )
Total connected load to PV panel system
= No. of units x rating of equipments
= 2 x 18 + 2 x 60 = 156 watts
Total watt-hours rating
= Total connected load ( watts ) x operating hours
= 156 x 6 = 936 watt - hours
STEP 2 : Find out the number of PV panels required
Actual power output of a PV panel
= Peak power rating x operating factor
= 40 x 0.75 = 30 watt
Total power used at the end use is less ( due to lower
combined efficiency of the system )
= Actual power output of a panel x combined efficiency
= 30 x 0.81 = 24.3 watts ( VA )
= 24.3 watts
Energy produced by one 40 Wp panel in a day
= Actual power output x 8 hours / day (peak equivalent)
= 24.3 x 8 = 194.4 watt - hour
Note : Though the day length can be longer, we consider light
equivalent to number of peak hours ( 1000 W / m2 ) for which solar
panel is characterized. For exact value one need to look at
meteorological data for given location .

Number of solar panels required to satisfy given estimated daily

load (from step 1 )

= Total watt-hour rating ( daily load )

Daily energy produced by a panel

= 936 / 194.4 = 4.81 = 5 ( round figure )

Note : For system of voltage higher than 12 (say 24), 24/12=2, two
modules should be in series to provide 24 volt
( while total number of panels should be same )
STEP 3 : Find out the battery requirement
Total amp-hour required ( total charge to be stored ),
( battery size should be higher than the actual useful
energy due to less combined efficiency of the system )
= Total amp-hour rating
( battery efficiency x depth of discharge x battery
voltage )
= 936 / 0.9 x 0.8 x 12 = 108.33
Note : One can also decide to design a system with 24
volt or 48 volt. Since typically PV panels and battery
are designed to give 12 volt, series –parallel
combination of panels and batteries will be required to
get higher PV system voltages.
Number of batteries required = Total amp-hour rating
Battery rating under use
= 108.33 / 120
= 0.9 ≈ 1 ( round figure )
Step 4: Find out inverter size
Inverter rating (watts or VA )
Total connected load to PV panel system = 156 watts
= 156 VA
Inverter are available with rating of 100, 200, 500 VA, etc.
Therefore, the choice of the inverter should be 200 VA
In this way, total load and the requirement of number and size of
various solar PV system components can be estimated. The
examples taken here are for small size house. For designing solar
PV systems for large house or for industrial application similar
design approach can be taken.
 Cost Estimation of a PV System
Cost estimation of a solar PV system for 2 CFLs and 2
fans for 6 hours per day is done here. The case study of
the above section is considered for cost estimation.
After finding out the requirement of number and
capacity of various systems components, like panels,
battery, inverter, it is a trivial job to estimate the cost.
One has to just add the cost of all components. But
some margin should be taken for other costs like wiring,
supporting infrastructure for panel and batteries, etc.
(a) Cost of arrays = No. of PV modules x Cost / Module
= 5 x 2000 ( for a 40 Wp panel @ Rs 50 / Wp)
= Rs 10000
(b) Cost of batteries = No. of Batteries x Cost / Battery
= 1 x 7500
= Rs 7500
(c) Cost of Inverter = No. of inverters x Cost / Inverter
= 1 x 5000
= Rs 5000
Total cost of system = A + B + C
= 10000 + 7500 + 5000
= Rs 18000

Additional cost of wiring may be taken as 5 % of total

system cost.
 Payback Period
• Actual power output of a 40 Wp panel
= PV panel rating x operating factor
= 40 x 0.75 = 30 Wp

• Energy produced by one 40 Wp panel

= Actual power output of a panel x combined efficiency x
No. of sun shines per day
= 30 x 0.81 x 8 = 194.4 Watt hour

• The total energy produced by the PV panels in a day

= Energy produced by one 40 Wp panel x No. of panels
Energy
= 194.4 x 5 = 972 Watt-hour = 0.972 kWh
• Cost of electricity for 1 kWh from EB is = Rs. 5

• Therefore cost of electricity produced from PV panels / day

= 0.972 x 5 = Rs. 4.886

• Payback period
= Total cost of the system / cost of electricity produced
from PV panels per day
= 3683 days
= 10 years
 MPPT /
inverter
Motor Storage

Groundwater
PV Module

Solar PV Water pumping System

SOLAR PV WATER PUMPING SYSTEM
Design of solar PV pumping systems requires knowledge
about

How much water needs to be pumped, at what depth

water should be pumped.

How many solar panel will be required for a given water

requirement

 What should be the ratings of a motor used with PV

panels, etc. The overall design of the system can be
divided in following steps:
Step 1 : Determine the amount of water required per day
Step 2: Determine the Total Dynamic Head ( TDH ) for
water pumping
Step 3: Determine the hydraulic energy required per
day ( watt-hour / day )
Step 4 : Determine the solar radiation available at given
location in terms of equivalent of peak sunshine
radiation ( 1000 W/m2 ) hours for which solar PV module
is characterized. Topically this number is 5 to 8 varying
season to season and location to location.
Step 5 : Determine the size of solar PV array and motor,
consider motor efficiency and other losses.
Before considering a case study, let us look at some of
the definitions related to the PV pumping
 CASE STUDY
Design of a PV system for pumping 25000 litres of water everyday
form a depth of about 12 metre is considered.
The data required for calculations are following and the calculation in
given below :
• Amount of water to be pumped per day = 25000 litre = 25m3
• Total vertical lift = 12 metres ( 5 m – elevation, 5 m – standing water
level, 2 m-drawdown )
• Water density = 1000 kg / m3
• Acceleration due to gravity, g = 9.8 m/s2
• Solar PV module used = 75 Wp
• Operating factor = 0.75 ( PV panel mostly does not operate at peak
rated power )
• Pump efficiency = 30 % or 0.30 ( can be between 0.25 and 0.40 )
• Mismatch factor = 0.85 ( PV panel does not operate at maximum
power point )
 Calculations for PV water pumping system

Step 1 : Determine total daily water requirement

Daily water requirement = 25 m3 / day

Step 2 : Determine total dynamic head

Total vertical lift = 12 m

Frictional losses = 5 % of the total vertical lift

= 12 x 0.05 = 0.6 metre

Total dynamic head ( TDH) = 12 + 0.6 = 12.6

Step 3 : Determine the hydraulic energy required per day
Hydraulic energy required to raise water level
= mass x g x TDH
= density x volume x g x DH
= ( 1000 kg / m3 ) x ( 25 m3/day ) x ( 9.8 m/s2 ) x 12.6
= ( multiply by 1/3600 to convert second in hours )
= 857.5 watt-hour / day
Note : Potential energy of the water is raised due to
pumping, which must be supplied to the pump

Step 4 : Determine solar radiation data

Solar radiation data in terms of equivalent peak sunshine
radiation ( 1000 W/m2 ) varies between about 5 and 8 hours.
For exact hours, meteorological data should be used.
= 6 h / d ( peak of 1000 W/m2 equivalent ),
actual day length is longer (this is equivalent of
solar radiation of 180000 watt-hours / month at a
given location )
Step 5 : Determine the number of PV panel and
pump size
Total wattage of PV panel
= Total hydraulic energy
No. of hours of peak sunshine / day
= 857.5 / 6 = 142.9 watt
Considering system losses
= Total PV panel wattage
Pump efficiency x Mismatch factor
= 142.9 / 0.3 x 0.85 = 560 watt
Consider operating factor for PV panel
= Total PV panel wattage after losses
operating factor
= 560 / 0.75 = 747.3 watt
Number of solar PV panel required of 75 Wp each
= 747.3 / 75 = 9.96 ≈ 10 (round figure)
Power rating of the motor
= 747.3 / 746 ≈ 1 HP motor
In this way, a solar PV water pumping system can be
designed.
 PV System Configurations

DC motor
Solar panel Pump
(a) Direct conversion system

Charge Inverter
Load
Controller ( AC / DC )
Solar panel Battery

(b) Storage System

 Solar panel

Lighting
loads

Charge
Controller
TV

Battery

Key components of a solar home system

 PV Panel Key

Components

of a solar
Lamp

Street
Battery

Lighting

System
 PV Water – Pumping System

PV array

Pump

Groundwater
 PV Hybrid System

PV modules

Generator

Wind AC Load
turbine ( or )
Regulation & DC
conversion

Batteries
 SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC LED
BASED STREET LIGHTING
SYSTEM

Solar powered outdoor lighting system is ideal for lighting the area in
remote locations where the electricity is unavailable or erratic. It can
also be used to illuminate the surroundings of the buildings for security
& safety.
 MAIN COMPONENTS

 SPV Module to convert solar radiation directly into electricity.

 6m height MS pole painted with corrosion resistant paint with necessary

accessories.
 Battery bank to store the electrical energy generated by SPV panel
during day time.
 Charge controller to maintain the battery to the highest possible State
of Charge (SOC) while protecting the battery from deep discharge (by the
loads) or extended overcharge (by the PV array).
 Blocking diode, preferably a Schottky diode, connected in series with
solar cells and storage battery to keep the battery from discharging
through the cell when there is no output or low output from the solar cell.
 15 W, 12 V DC LED based luminaries as a light source.
 Interconnecting wires/cables & hardware.
 SALIENT FEATURES OF SYSTEM & ITS COMPONENTS

The street light pole should be mounted clear of vegetation, trees &
structure so as to assure that they are free of shadow throughout day light
hours during each season of the year.
The entire system is designed and built to withstand the extreme
environmental conditions prevailing at site.
All wiring, enclosures and fixtures that are mounted outdoor are resistant
to high humidity conditions, corrosion, insect and dust intrusion.
The solar cells are provided with surface anti- reflective coating to help to
absorb more light in all weather conditions.
The complete solar module is provided with water-proof sealing in an
anodized aluminium frame.
A bird spike is provided at the highest point of the array/module structure
to avoid bird sitting on the solar module.
The output terminals of the module are provided on the back of the solar
PV module.

Solar module front side Back side

All metal equipment cases and frames in the system should be well
grounded.
The Sun is not always available and it is not regular. However, lights are
to be fed daily. Therefore power should be stored in a battery bank.
The storage battery bank have enough capacity to keep the system going
on without break down when the weather is not favorable for generation of
electricity due to cloudy days and rains.
All connections are properly made tight and neat using the crimped Red
(for +ve) and Black (for –ve) wires supplied by the manufacturer in order
to avoid reverse Connection.
The proper rating of the fuse in the charge controller is provided.
The SPV panel is installed facing SOUTH and with the correct ‘Angle of
tilt’ to get direct sunlight throughout the day.
There is no shadow on any part of the SPV panel at any time of the day,
to get maximum power.
Never connect the load (light fitting) directly to the SPV panel as it may
give higher/lower voltage than required by the load equipment and hence
the equipment may be DAMAGED permanently.
Blocking diode is provided at the array output for protection against
reverse polarity.
 APPLICATIONS

Remote Residential
Village Power
Stand Alone Systems
Building-Integrated PV(BIPV)
Consumer Product Power
Hybrid Power System
Space Power System

71
 Handle

CFL

Charge On / Off
Solar PV controller switch
panel
Battery

Solar PV Lantern
LANTER N
HOME LIGHTING
STREET LIGHTING
WATER PUMPING
POWER PLANT
IN TRAFFIC
RAILWAY STATION
PV TILES
FLEXIBLE
PV CELL
 Remote Areas (Mexico)

A solar panel in Marla, Cirque de Mafate, Réunion

 Spacecraft
International Space Station

Hubble Telescope

Mars Rover
Recreational Use (Sailboat)
Residential
 Commercial

Solar Centre at Baglan Energy Park in South Wales

Architectural integration of PV modules on exterior walls
 Numerical problems
1. Compute the energy cost for generating 100LPD of hot water using the
following energy sources:
1. LPG
(Price: ₹ 950/14.2 kg cylinder, GCV: 45500 kJ/kg , Efficiency = 70%
2. Electricity
(Price ₹4/kWh) , Efficiency = 60%
Ambient water temperature = 25 oC and required hot water temperature = 70 oC

2. Determine the cost of production of 1 unit of Electricity using Coal and

Diesel. Assume relevant conversion efficiency, fuel cost and CV.

Ch.3 Photovoltaics ME 470 88