Support Lessons

Introduction
A computer is an electronic machine that accepts data from
the user, processes the data by performing calculations and
operations on it, and generates the desired output results.

Computer performs both simple and complex operations, with

speed and accuracy.
 Computer
• A computer is an electronic device that manipulates information or
"data." It has the ability to store, retrieve, and process data.
• We may therefore define a computer as an electronic device that is
programmable to perform specialized tasks and equipped with an
Input Device
Output Device
Central Processing Unit or Microprocessor
Storage Device
 Generations of Computers
• The evolution of computer to the current state is defined in
terms of the generations of computer.

• Each generation of computer is designed based on a new

technological development, resulting in better, cheaper and
smaller computers that are more powerful, faster and efficient
than their predecessors.

• Currently, there are five generations of computer

 First Generation (1940 To 1955)
Using Vacuum Tubes
• The first generation of computers used vacuum • The first generation computers
used a large number of vacuum
tubes for circuitry and magnetic drums for
tubes and thus generated a lot of
memory. The input to the computer was
heat.
through punched cards and paper tapes.

• The output was displayed as printouts. The

instructions were written in machine language
and could solve one problem at a time.
•
 First Generation (1940 To 1955)
Using Vacuum Tubes
• They consumed a great deal of electricity and were expensive
to operate. The machines were prone to frequent
malfunctioning and required constant maintenance. Since first
generation computers used machine language, they were
difficult to program.

• Examples: Universal Automatic Computer (UNIVAC), Electronic

Numerical Integrator And Calculator (ENIAC), EDVAC Etc .
 First Generation (1946 To 1954)
Using Vacuum Tubes
• The computers at this time were very expensive and therefore by
the end of 1958 only about 2,500 first generation computers were
installed world-wide.

• As a result of the vacuum tubes, this generation of computers was

huge in physical size. For example, ENIAC -the Electronic
Numerical Integrator and Computer -which was developed in
1946 measured 18 feet by 80 feet and weighed 30 tons
 Second Generation (1954 To 1962)
Using Transistors
• Transistors replaced the vacuum tubes of the first generation of
computers. Transistors allowed computers to become smaller, faster,
cheaper, energy efficient and reliable. The second generation computers
used magnetic core technology for primary memory.

• They used magnetic tapes and magnetic disks for

secondary storage. The input was still through
punched cards and the output using printouts.
A transistor
 Second Generation (1954 To 1962)
Using Transistors
• The instructions were written using the assembly language.
High-level programming languages, such as early versions of
COBOL and FORTRAN were also developed during this period.

• Transistors are smaller in size compared to vacuum tubes, thus,

the size of the computer was also reduced.

• Examples: PDP-8, IBM 1401 and CDC 1504.

 Second Generation (1954 To 1962)
Using Transistors

• The second generation of computers was much smaller in

physical size as compared to the first generation computers

• Faster in terms of processing speed, less expensive and also

generated less heat.
 Third Generation (1963 To 1972)
Using Integrated Circuits
• The third generation computers • Operating system allowed different
used the Integrated Circuit (IC) applications to run at the same time. High-
chips. In an IC chip, multiple level languages were used extensively for
transistors are placed on a silicon programming, instead of machine language
chip. Silicon is a type of and assembly language.
semiconductor

An integrated circuit
 Third Generation (1963 To 1972)
Using Integrated Circuits
• This computers used less power and generated less heat than the
second generation computers.

• The cost of the computer reduced significantly, as individual

components of the computer were not required to be assembled
manually.

• Examples: IBM 370, PDP 11.

 Fourth Generation (1972 To 1984)
Using Microprocessors
• They use the Large Scale Integration (LSI) and the Very Large
Scale Integration (VLSI) technology. Thousands of transistors
are integrated on a small silicon chip using LSI technology

• The microprocessor has resulted in the fourth generation

computers being smaller and cheaper than their
A microprocessor
predecessors.

• The fourth generation computers are also portable and more

reliable.
 Fourth Generation (1972 To 1984)
Using Microprocessors
• They generate much lesser heat and require less maintenance
compared to their predecessors. GUI and pointing devices facilitate
easy use and learning on the computer. Networking has resulted in
resource sharing and communication among different computers.

• Examples: The components of the computer like Central Processing

Unit (CPU) and memory were located on a single chip.
 Fifth Generation (Present And Beyond)
Using Artificial Intelligence
• The goal of fifth generation computing • This generation of computers uses
is to develop computers that are parallel processing that allows several
capable of learning and self- instructions to be executed in parallel,
organization. instead of serial execution.
• The fifth generation computers use
Super Large Scale Integrated (SLSI)
chips that are able to store millions of
components on a single chip.
robots
 Fifth Generation (Present And Next)
Using Artificial Intelligence
• The fifth generation computers are based on Artificial Intelligence
(AI). They try to simulate the human way of thinking and reasoning.

• Artificial Intelligence includes areas like Expert System (ES), Natural

Language Processing (NLP), speech recognition, voice recognition,
robotics, etc.
 Classification Of Computers
Computer can be classified based on three main
categories.
Classification based on data representation
Classification based on area of application/purpose
Classification based on size, processing power, storage capacity
etc.
 Classification Based Data Representation
A. Digital Computer: A digital computer uses distinct values to represent
the data internally. All information are represented using the digits 0s and
1s. All quantities are expressed as discrete form.

B. Analog computer: Analog computer is another kind of a computer that

represents data as variable across a continuous range of value.

Analog computers may be more flexible but generally less precise than
digital computers.
 Continued…
C. Hybrid Computers
Are computers that exhibit features of analog
computer and digital computers. The digital component normally serves as
the controller and provides logical operations, while the analog component
normally serves as a solver of differential equations.
 Classification Based On Purpose

A. Special Purpose Computers

A special purpose computer is designed only to meet the requirements of a particular

task or application. The instructions needed to perform a particular task are

permanently stored into the internal memory, so that it can perform the given task on a

single command.
 Classification Based On Purpose
B. General Purpose Computers
General Purpose computers are designed to meet the needs of many different
applications. In these computers, the instructions needed to perform a particular task
are wired permanently into the internal memory.
 Classification Based On Size, Processing
Power, Storage Capacity.
A. Supercomputer
• Supercomputers are the fastest and the most expensive machines. They have high
processing speed compared to other computers. The speed of a supercomputer is
generally measured in FLOPS (Floating point Operations Per Second).

• Supercomputers are used for highly calculation-intensive tasks, such as, weather
forecasting, climate research etc.

Example: IBM Deep Blue

B. Mainframe computers
 Are multi-user, multi-programming and high performance computers.
 They operate at a very high speed, have very large storage capacity and can
handle the workload of many users.
 The user accesses the mainframe computer via a terminal.
 A dumb terminal cannot store data or do processing of its own. It has the input
and output device only.
 An intelligent terminal has the input and output device, can do processing, but,
cannot store data of its own. Examples of mainframes are CDC 5500 and IBM
ES000 series.
C. Minicomputers
Minicomputers are digital computers, generally used in multi-user systems.
 They have high processing speed and high storage capacity than the microcomputers.
Minicomputers can support 4–200 users simultaneously.

 The users can access the minicomputer through their PCs or terminal. They are used
for real-time applications in industries, research centers, etc. PDP 11, IBM (8000
series) are some of the widely used minicomputers.
D. Microcomputers
 Microcomputers are small, low-cost and single-user digital computer.

 They consist of CPU, input unit, output unit, storage unit and the software. Although
microcomputers are stand-alone machines, they can be connected together to
create a network of computers that can serve more than one user.

 Examples are desktop computers, notebook computers Examples of microcomputers

or laptop, tablet computer, handheld computer, smart phones etc.
 The Computer System
• The computer system
consists of four parts:

a. Hardware
b. Software
c. Data
d. Users
 Hardware
• The hardware consists of physical devices of the computer.

• The devices are required for input, output, storage and

processing of the data.

• Keyboard, monitor, hard disk drive, floppy disk drive, printer,

processor and motherboard are some of the hardware devices.
 Software

• A set of programs and documents are collectively called software.

• Software is a set of instructions that tells the computer about the

tasks to be performed and how these tasks are to be performed.

• Program is a set of instructions, written in a language understood

by the computer, to perform a specific task.
 Data
• Data are isolated values or raw facts, which by themselves have no much

significance.

• Example: the data ‘29, January, and 1994’ just represent values.

• The data is provided as input to the computer, which is processed to generate

some meaningful information. For example: 29, January and 1994 are processed

by the computer to give the date of birth of a person.

 Users
• People who write computer programs or interact with the computer.

• They are also known as liveware, humanware or peopleware

 The Input-Process-Output
• Input
Concept
The computer accepts input data from the user via an input device like keyboard. The
input data can be characters, word, text, sound, images, document, etc.
• Process

It performs some actions on the data by using the instructions or program given by the
user of the data.

The action could be an arithmetic or logic calculation, editing, modifying a document, etc.
During processing, the data, instructions and the output are stored temporarily in the
computer’s main memory.
 The Input-Process-Output
• Output Concept
The output is the result generated after the processing of data. The output may
be in the form of text, sound, image, document, etc. The computer may display
the output on a monitor, send output to the printer for printing, play the output,
etc.
• Storage

The input data, instructions and output are stored permanently in the secondary
storage devices like disk or tape. The stored data can be retrieved later,
whenever needed.
 Components of Computer
Hardware
• The computer system hardware
comprises of three main components:
a) Input/output (I/O) Unit

b) Central Processing Unit (CPU)

c) Memory Unit.
 Application of Computers

• Computers have proliferated into various areas of our lives. For a user,

computer is a tool that provides the desired information, whenever needed.

• Education, Entertainment, Sports, Advertising, Medicine, Science and

Engineering, Government, Home etc.

• The list of applications of computers is so long that it is not possible to discuss

all of them here.

The Computer System
HARDWARE
 Introduction
• Computer architecture refers to the structure and behavior of the computer, it

includes the specifications of the components

• Computer organization focuses on the organizational structure. It deals with

how the hardware components operate and the way they are connected to

form the computer.

• Computer design focuses on the hardware to be used and the interconnection

of parts.
 Hardware
• A computer consists of three main components:

i. Input/Output (I/O) Unit

ii. Central Processing Unit (CPU)

iii. Memory Unit

 Components of a Computer
Every Computer has two major components namely the
HARDWARE and the SOFTWARE

• The HARDWARE refers to the physical components , that is the

components that one can see and touch.

• The SOFTWARE are the application programs and the other

operating information required by the Computer.
 Input Devices
These are the components of the Computer used in providing inputs
(be it in text, sound, graphics or images, etc.) into the Computer.

Most common input devices are as follows:

• Keyboard if the inputs are to be typed

• Microphone if the input is audio or sound

• Scanner, Camera if the input is graphics

More about input devices
• Input devices include keyboards, pointing devices, and source-data entry
devices like scanners and digital cameras as well as voice and audio/video
input devices like microphones and video cameras.

• The most common input device and the one you will probably have to learn
how to use is the keyboard.

• The computer keyboard unlike the ordinary typewriter keyboard converts

letters, numbers, and other characters into electrical signals in machine
language and can be processed by the computer processor.
 Input Devices
Other devices that are commonly used in conjunction with the keyboard are pointing
devices like the mouse.

 These devices control the position of the cursor –pointer on the screen. Pointing devices
include:

• Mice, trackballs, and joysticks

• Light pens

• Digitizing tablets

• Pen-based systems
 Keyboard
The keyboard is the commonest input device. It is usually connected to the
system unit of the computer through a serial port with a cable.

The keys on the keyboard can be divided into four groups namely:

• Standard keys

• Cursor-movement keys

• Numeric keys

• Function keys
Keyboard
 Keyboard
• The Standard typing keys are similar to that of the typewriter
with the familiar QWERTY arrangement of letter, number, and
punctuation keys.

• QWERTY refers to the alphabets in the top left row on the

standard typewriter keyboard.
 On the computer keyboard, it can be found on the third row.

 The Caps Lock, Shift, and Tab keys and also the Space bar
work the same way as they do on a typewriter keyboard.

 The Caps Lock key is a toggle key

Keyboard

• Cursor-movement keys–sometimes called the arrow keys –are

use to move the cursor around the text on the screen.

• The cursor is the blinking vertical bar on the screen that

indicates insertion point or where data may be entered next.
 The cursor-movement keys move the cursor left, right, up, or
down.

 Keys labeled Page Up and Page Down move the cursor the
equivalent of one screen (page) up (backward) and down
(forward) at a time respectively
Keyboard
• Numeric keys are laid out separately on the numeric keypad–a
separate set of keys, 0 through 9 like those on a calculator –on
the standard 101-key keyboard previously known as the AT-
style keyboard

• The numeric keypad serves two purposes.

 With the Num Lock key off, the numeric keys duplicate
as arrow keys for the movement of cursor and perform
other functions such as Page Up and Page Down.

 And when the Num Lock is on, the keys may be used for
entering numbers, as on a calculator.

 The Num Lock key is also a toggle key

Keyboard
• However, to maintain keyboard standard the numeric keys

can also be found on the second row of keys with other

special characters just like the typewriter keyboard.

• Function keys are the keys labelled F1, F2 through F12.

These keys are not used for typing but rather for
issuing commands.

Desktops normally have 12 function keys while some

portables like notebooks have only 10.

The function that each of these keys perform are

however software-specific.
 Pointing Devices

• The principal pointing tools used with microcomputers

are the mouse, the trackball, the joystick, and the
touchpad.

• A mouse is a device that is rolled about on a desktop to

direct a pointer on the monitor.
 The mouse pointer is the symbol that indicates the
position of the mouse on the display screen.

 It may be an arrow, a rectangle, or even a representation

of a person’s pointing finger.

 It may change to an I-beam to indicate that it is a cursor

identifying the place where text or other data may be
entered.
Mouse
• The mouse is usually connected to the system unit by
plugging it into a port or socket at the back of the unit
using a cable.

• A ball under the mouse translates the mouse movement

into digital signals and on top of the mouse are one to
four buttons depending on the variation of the mouse.
Trackball
• A trackball is a movable ball, on top of a stationary device, that is
rotated with the fingers or palm of the hand.

• It looks like the mouse turn upside down; instead of moving the
mouse around, you move the trackball with the tips of your
fingers.

• Trackballs are specially suited for portable computers like laptops

which are often used in confined working environments such as
airline tray tables.
Joystick
• A joystick is a pointing device that consists of a
vertical handle like a gearshift lever mounted on
a base with one or two buttons.

• Joysticks are principally used in some computer-

aided (CAD) systems, computerized robot systems,
and in video games.
Mostly found on laptops, touch pads are flat-top
rectangular devices that let you control the
cursor/pointer by rubbing your finger on the
surface of the pad.

A click action is accomplished by tapping on the

pad’s surface
 Light Pen
• The light pen is a light-sensitive device that is connected to the
computer terminal.

• The user points to a desire location on the monitor and presses

the pen which then sends the signal corresponding to the location
to the computer.

• Light pens are used by graphic designers, engineers, and

architects.
Digitizing tablets
Digitizing Tablets
• A digitizing tablet used with a stylus enables the user to paint
“naturally” and achieve effects similar to what an artist will achieve
using pen, pencil, or charcoal.

• Alternatively, a digitized copy of a painting can be traced and

stored into the computer by laying the painting or drawing on the
tablet.

• Digitizing devices are used primarily by artists and graphic

designers.
Scanning Devices

• Hardcopies of graphic images such as drawings and

photos are translated into digital form by scanners using
laser beams and reflected light.

• The images can be processed by a computer, displayed

on a monitor, stored on a storage device, or
communicated to another computer.
 Types of scanners include Bar-code readers,
Mark-and character-recognition devices,
Fax machines, and Imaging systems.
Output Devices

• Monitor: Produces soft copies. The two main types are

cathode ray tube (CRT) and liquid crystal display (LCD)
monitors.

The CRT monitor is big, like a tube television, and takes up a

lot of desk space; however, it is the least expensive monitor
option.
The LCD monitor is thin and saves energy, but costs more. Over
the years you can expect to see fewer CRT monitors if not
completely eliminated as LCD monitors become the standard
Types of Monitors

CRT Monitor LCD Monitor

Printers and Plotters
• Printer for hardcopies

• There are two types namely impact and non-impact.

• Impact printers (e.g. Dot Matrix) are very cheap and getting out
of the market while the non-impact (laser, bubble jet, etc.) are
expensive and produce quality output

• Speaker for sound or audio output

Plotters
A plotter is a computer hardware
device much like a printer that is used
for printing vector graphics. Instead of
toner, plotters use a pen, pencil,
marker, or another writing tool to
draw multiple, continuous lines onto
paper rather than a series of dots like
a traditional printer An HP Large Format Plotter
• Plotters can work on very large sheets of paper while

maintaining high resolution.

• They can print on a wide variety of flat materials including

plywood, aluminum, sheet steel, cardboard, and plastic.

• Plotters are more expensive than traditional printers

 Microprocessor/Central Processing
Unit
• The Central Processing Unit (CPU), also called a processor, is located
inside the computer case on the motherboard.

• It is often called the brain of the computer, or the computer's

engine.

• Its main function is to interpret the various instructions in a given

program.

• There are many processor manufacturers for personal computers

including Intel, Cyrix, VIA, and AMD.
 Today, the clock speed of a processor is measured in gigahertz

(GHz).

 The processor with the higher clock speed will execute

instructions faster than the one with a lower clock speed.

 The processor has three main components namely the

Arithmetic-Logic Unit (ALU), the control Unit (CU) and registers.

 Microprocessor/Central Processing Unit

Central Processing Unit (CPU) or the

processor is also often called the brain
of computer. CPU consist of:
• Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)

• Control Unit (CU)

• Registers
 Arithmetic Logic Unit
ALU performs Arithmetic and Logic Operations, and uses registers to hold
the data that is being processed. It consists of arithmetic unit and logic
unit.

The Arithmetic Unit performs arithmetic operations on the data that is

made available to it, such as addition, subtraction etc.

The Logic Unit is responsible for performing logic operations. It performs

comparisons of numbers, letters and special characters
 Control Unit
●
The control unit organizes the processing of data and
instructions.
●
It acts as a supervisor and, controls and coordinates
the activity of the other units of computer.
●
CU coordinates the input and output devices of a
computer.
 Control Unit Continued…

●
It directs the computer to carry out stored program
instructions by communicating with the ALU and the
registers.

●
CU uses the instructions in the Instruction Register (IR) to
decide which circuit needs to be activated.

●
It also instructs the ALU to perform the arithmetic or logic
operations.
 Register
• Registers are high-speed storage areas within the CPU, but have
the least storage capacity.

• They are often referred to as the CPU’s working memory.

• Registers store data, instructions, addresses and intermediate

results of processing.
 Some Registers and their uses
• Accumulator (ACC) stores the result of arithmetic and logic operations.

• Instruction Register (IR) contains the current instruction most recently

fetched.

• Program Counter (PC) contains the address of next instruction to be

processed.

• Memory Address Register (MAR) contains the address of next location in

the memory to be accessed.
 Registers Continued…

• Memory Buffer Register (MBR)

temporarily stores data from
memory or the data to be sent to
memory.

• Data Register (DR) stores the

operands and any other data.
 Continued…
●
The number of registers and the size of each (number of
bits) register in a CPU helps to determine the power and
the speed of a CPU.

●
The size of register, also called word size, indicates the
amount of data with which the computer can work at any
given time. The bigger the size, the more quickly it can
process data. The size of a register may be 8, 15, 32 or
54 bits.
 Memory Unit
• Memory unit consists of cache memory and primary memory.
Primary Memory/Main Memory of the computer is used to
store the data and instructions during execution of the
instructions.

• Random Access Memory (RAM) and Read Only Memory (ROM)

are the primary memory.
• Secondary memory is another kind of storage device,
it is non-volatile and is used for permanent storage of
data and programs.

• A program or data that has to be executed is brought

into the RAM from the secondary memory.
 Cache Memory
Cache memory is a very high speed memory placed in between
RAM and CPU.

Cache memory is a storage buffer that stores the data that is

used more often, temporarily, and makes them available to CPU
at a fast rate.
 Cache Memory continued
Cache memory is built into the processor, and may also be
located next to it on a separate chip between the CPU and
RAM. Cache built into the CPU is faster than separate cache.

Cache memory is very expensive, so it is smaller in size.

Generally, computers have cache memory of sizes 255 KB to
2 MB
 Primary Memory
Primary memory is the main memory of computer.

Primary memory is of two kinds—Random Access

Memory (RAM) and Read Only Memory (ROM).

RAM is volatile and stores data and instructions during

the execution of instructions. Information stored in RAM
gets erased when the computer is turned off.
 Primary Memory continued
ROM is non-volatile memory, but is a read only memory.

The storage in ROM is permanent in nature, and is used

for storing standard processing programs that
permanently reside in the computer.

ROM comes programmed by the manufacturer.

ROM
• The Read Only Memory (ROM) chips also called firmware, cannot be
written on or erased by the computer –as the name suggests, its
content can only be read.

• Firmware is the term that is used for software permanently stored on

a chip –microprogrammed.

• If we say that RAM chips temporarily remembers (information

supplied by the user or software), then ROM chips can be said to
permanently remember (information supplied by the manufacturer).
 Read Only Memory
• ROM does not lose its content when the power is switched off.

Has only read capability and no write capability

Stores the basic input output system (BIOS). BIOS provides the processor with the
information required to boot the system.

Power On Self Test (POST) is a program that runs automatically when the system is
booted

Bootstrap Loader is a program whose purpose is to start the computer software for
operation when the power is turned on.
 Kinds Of ROM

There are three variations of ROM chips that are used in

special situations. The three variations are PROM,

EPROM, and EEPROM.

• PROM
Programmable Read-Only Memories are blank chips on
which instructions or programs are written using special
equipment. Once the program is written, it cannot be
erased.
•EPROM

Erasable Programmable Read Only Memories are like

PROM chips except that the contents can be erased,
using special equipment and new data or instructions
can be written. A special device that uses ultraviolet
light is used to erase its content.
•EEPROM

EEPROM: Electronic Erasable Programmable Read-Only

Memory can be reprogrammed using special electrical
impulses. The advantage of EEPROM chips is that they need
not be removed from the computer to be reprogrammed.
Instruction Cycle
• The series of steps that the CPU follows

execute instruction is called the

Instruction Cycle.

• The instruction cycle involves four steps:

• Fetching The processor fetches the

instruction from the memory and placed

in the Instruction Register(IR).

 Instruction Cycle continued
• Decoding The instruction that is fetched is broken

down into parts or decoded. The instruction is

translated into commands so that they correspond to

those in the CPU’s instruction set.

• Executing The decoded instruction or the command is

executed. CPU performs the operation implied by the

program instruction. For example, if it is an ADD

instruction, addition is performed.

 Continued

• Storing the CPU writes

back the results of
execution, to the
computer’s memory.
Processor speed
• Processor speed is measured in three ways with
respect

• to the frequency of its system clock (in megahertz),

• the number of instructions processed per second and

• floating-point operation per second.

 Every computer contains an internal timing device that is
switched on when the power of the computer is turned on.

 This device is called the system clock. The system clock

controls the pace at which all operations take place.

 The faster the clock, the faster the processing.

 Processor Speed
• Microcomputer processing speeds are often measured in megahertz
(MHz), with 1 MHz equal to 1 million machine cycle or beats per second.

• Processing speed of Workstations and Mainframes are often measured in

number of instructions processed per second (IPS) which currently runs
into millions.

• Thus, MIPS (million of instruction per second) is a measure of computer

processing speed.
• For Supercomputers, processing speed is often measured
in flops –floating-point operation per second.

• Floating-point operation is a special kind of mathematical

calculations.

• This measure is often expressed in megaflops (millions of

floating-point operations per second), gigaflops (billions
of floating-point operations per second) and teraflops
(trillions of floating-point operations per second).
 Interconnecting The Units Of A
Computer
• Bus is a set of electronic signal pathways that allows information
and signals to travel between components inside or outside of a
computer.

The different components of computer, i.e., CPU, I/O unit, and

memory unit are connected with each other by a bus.

• The data, instructions and the signals are carried between the
different components via a bus.
 Features and Functions of a Bus
A bus is a set of wires used for interconnection, where each wire can
carry one bit of data.

A bus width is defined by the number of wires in the bus.

A computer bus can be divided into two types Internal Bus and
External Bus.

The Internal Bus connects components inside the motherboard like,

CPU and system memory. It is also called the System Bus.
 Interaction between CPU And Memory
The interaction of CPU with memory and I/O
devices involves all the three buses.

 The command to access the memory or the I/O

device is carried by the control bus.

 The address of I/O device or memory is carried

by the address bus.

 The data to be transferred is carried by the data

bus.
 System Bus
The functions of data bus, address bus and control
bus, in the system bus, are as follows:

Data Bus transfers data between the CPU

and memory.

Address Bus connects CPU and RAM with

set of wires similar to data bus.

Control Bus specifies whether data is to be

read or written to the memory, etc.
 Expansion Bus
• The expansion bus connects external devices to the rest of computer.

• Data Bus is used to transfer data between I/O devices and CPU.

• The exchange of data between CPU and I/O devices is according to the industry
standard data buses.

• The most commonly used standard is Extended Industry Standard Architecture

(EISA) which is a 32-bit bus architecture.
 Expansion Bus Continued…
• Some of the common bus technologies are:

 Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI) bus

 Accelerated Graphics Port (AGP) bus

 Universal Serial Bus (USB)

• Address Bus carries the addresses of different I/O devices to be accessed like
the hard disk, CD ROM, etc.

• Control Bus is used to carry read/write commands, status of I/O devices, etc.
 External Ports
The connections to the bus from the peripheral devices are
made via the ports and sockets.

The different ports and sockets facilitate the connection of

different devices to the computer.
Some of the standard port connections available on the
outer sides of the computer are port for mouse, keyboard,
monitor, network, modem, and, audio port, serial port,
parallel port and USB port.

The different ports are physically identifiable by their

different shapes, size of contact pins and number of pins.
 Performance of a Computer

• A number of factors are related to the CPU and have an effect

on the overall speed and performance of the computer. Some
of the factors include:

• Registers The size of the register (word size) indicates the

amount of data with which the computer can work at any given
time. The bigger the size, the more quickly it can process data.
 Performance of a Computer
Continued…
• RAM It is used to store data and instructions during execution of the
instructions. If RAM is less, then the CPU waits each time the new
information is swapped into memory from the slower devices. The
larger the RAM size, the better it is.

• System Clock The clock speed of a CPU is defined as the frequency

with which a processor executes instructions or the data is processed.
Higher clock frequencies mean more clock ticks per second.
Performance is in MIPS or BIPS
Performance of a Computer Continued…
• Bus Data bus is used for transferring data between CPU and memory. The
data bus width affects the speed of computer. The bus speed is measured
in MHz Higher the bus speed the better it is.

• PCs nowadays have a bus speed varying from 100 MHz to 400 MHz.

• Cache Memory Two of the main factors that affect a cache’s performance
are its size (amount of cache memory) and level L1, L2 and L3. Larger the
size of cache, the better it is
Inside the Microcomputer
For now let us concern ourselves with the following parts of the
system unit:
• Power supply
• Motherboard
• Microprocessor
• RAM chips
• ROM chips
• Other forms of memory -cache, VRAM, flash
• Expansion slots and boards
• Buses, PC slots and cards
 Power Supply Unit
• The power supply is the device that converts
power from AC to DC to run the computer.

• The electricity available from a standard wall

outlet is an alternating current (AC) but
microcomputers run on direct current (DC).

• The on/off switch in the computer turns on or

shut off the electricity to the power supply. An HP power supply unit
• As electricity generates lots of heat, a fan is provided to cool
the components and prevent them from getting too hot.

• For precaution sake, it is advisable to connect your computer

to an uninterrupted power supply (UPS) or surge protectors
instead of connecting it directly to the electricity power outlet
 Motherboard
• Motherboard
The computer is built up around a motherboard. It is a large Printed Circuit Board (PCB),
having many chips, connectors and other electronics mounted on it.

The motherboard may be characterized by the form factor, chipset and type of
processor socket used.

Form factor refers to the motherboard’s geometry, dimensions, arrangement and

electrical requirements
Motherboard
• Also known as the system board, the motherboard is the
main circuit board in the system unit.

• It's a thin plate that holds the CPU (Central Processing

Unit), RAM, ROM chips and other forms of memory,
connectors for the hard drive and optical drives.
• It also houses the expansion cards to control the video
and audio, as well as various external ports and
peripherals.

• The motherboard connects directly or indirectly to

every part of the computer.
 Motherboard Continued…

The Basic Input Output System

(BIOS) and Complementary
Metal-Oxide Semiconductor
(CMOS) are present on the
motherboard.
 Motherboard Continued…
• BIOS It is the basic program used as an interface between the operating system
and the motherboard. The BIOS is stored in the ROM and cannot be rewritten. It
performs a Power On Self Test (POST) that checks that the hardware is
functioning properly and the hardware devices are present.

• CMOS Chip CMOS chip saves some system information, such as time, system date
and essential system settings. CMOS is kept powered by a button battery located
on the motherboard.
 Ports And Interfaces
• Motherboard has a certain number
of I/O sockets that are connected to
the ports and interfaces found on
the rear side of a computer and
connect external devices to the ports
and interfaces, to the motherboard
 Ports and Interfaces
• Serial Port to connect old peripherals.

• Parallel Port to connect old printers.

• USB Ports to connect newer peripherals like cameras, scanners and

printers

• Firewire is another bus, used today mostly for video cameras and
external hard drives.

• RJ45 connector (called LAN or Ethernet port) is used to connect the

computer to a network
 Ports and Interfaces Continued…
• VGA connector for connecting a monitor. This connector interfaces with
the built-in graphics card.

• Audio plugs (line-in, line-out and microphone), for connecting sound

speakers and the microphone. This connector interfaces with the built-
in sound card.

• PS/2 port to connect mouse and keyboard into PC.

• SCSI port for connecting the hard disk drives and network connectors.
 Expansion Slots

• The expansion slots are located on the

motherboard.

• The expansion cards are inserted in the

expansion slots.
 Ribbon Cables
• Ribbon cables are flat, insulated and consist of
several tiny wires molded together that carry
data to different components on the
motherboard.

• There is a wire for each bit of the word or byte

A ribbon cable

and additional wires to coordinate the activity of

moving information.
 Ribbon Cable
• They also connect the floppy drives, disk drives and CD-ROM
drives to the connectors in the motherboard.

• Serial Advanced Technology Attachment (SATA) cables have

replaced the ribbon cables to connect the drives to the
motherboard.
 Memory Chips
• The main memory or the RAM (random
access memory), is the temporary work
space for the processor.

• It is a temporal or versatile memory

• It temporary holds data and instructions

that will be needed shortly by the
processor.
• Data is temporarily stored here until you save your work to the hard
disk.

• This short-term memory disappears when the computer is turned off,

so always save your file before turning off the machine.

• The capacity of the RAM therefore determines how large the

software that can be run on any computer and how fast it can run.
 Random Access Memory
RAM is used to store data and instructions during the operation of computer. It is
a volatile memory
The performance of RAM is affected by:
Access speed (how quickly information can be retrieved).
Data transfer unit size (how much information can be retrieved in one request).
There are two categories of RAM, depending on the technology used to construct
a RAM
• (1) Dynamic RAM (DRAM)
• (2) Static RAM (SRAM).
 DRAM
• Is the most common type of memory chip. It is mostly used as main memory since it is
small and cheap.

• It uses transistors and capacitors.

• DRAM must be refreshed continually to store information.

• DRAM gets its name from the refresh operation that it requires to store the information;
otherwise it will lose what it is holding. The refresh operation occurs automatically
thousands of times per second.

• Access speed of DRAM ranges from 50 to 150 ns.

 SRAM
• SRAM chip is usually used in cache memory due to its high speed.

•SRAM uses multiple transistors. It does not have a capacitor in each cell.

•A SRAM memory cell has more parts so it takes more space on a chip than DRAM cell.

•It does not need constant refreshing.

•SRAM is more expensive than DRAM.

•It stores information as long as it is supplied with power.

•SRAM are easier to use and very fast.

•The access speed of SRAM ranges from 2 to10 nanosecond.

 Flash Memory
It is a kind of semiconductor-based non-volatile, rewritable
computer memory that can be electrically erased and
reprogrammed.

It combines the features of RAM and ROM.

Flash memories are high-speed memories, durable, and

have low-energy consumption.
 Memory Capacity
• How much data –in other words, how many 0s and 1s –a computer memory
or a storage device can hold is very important for its operation.

• As we already mentioned, a 0 or 1 occupies one bit of memory space.

• A character consists of eight bits thus occupies eight bits of memory space.

• As data are keyed into the computer in characters, bits are grouped into eight
bits –1 byte.

• A Byte is used to hold a letter, number, or a special character (such as *, &, $,

etc.).
 Memory Representation
• The Kilobyte (KB) is the common unit of measure for internal memory of
microcomputers (1024 bytes, 210 bytes)

• A Megabyte (MB) is about 1 million bytes, precisely (1,048,576 bytes). A floppy

diskette for example has a capacity of 2 MB (220 bytes)

• A Gigabyte (GB) is about 1 billion bytes, precisely 1,073,741,824 bytes. This

measure is often used to measure the capacity of hard disks of microcomputers or
PCs, CD-ROMs and main memory capacity of mainframes and supercomputers.

• A Terabyte (TB) represents 1 trillion bytes, precisely 1,009,511,627,776 bytes.

• Supercomputers main memory capacities are expressed in terabytes.

 Memory Hierarchy
• The memory is characterized on the basis of two key factors
Capacity and Access Time.

• Capacity is the amount of information (in bits) that a memory

can store.

• Access Time is the time interval between the read/ write

request and the availability of data.

• The lesser the access time, the faster is the speed of memory
 Memory Hierarchy
• The internal memory and external memory are the two broad
categories of memory used in the computer.

•The internal memory consists of the CPU Registers, Cache

Memory and primary memory to perform the computing
tasks.

• The external memory is also called the secondary memory.

It is used to store the large amount of data and the software.
 The Internal Memory
Internal Memory the key features are:

• (1) Limited Storage Capacity

• (2) Temporary Storage

• (3) Fast Access

• (4) High Cost

Registers, cache memory, and primary memory constitute the internal memory.
Primary Memory is further of two kinds RAM and ROM. Registers are the fastest
and the most expensive among all the memory types.
 Secondary Memory
The key features of secondary memory storage devices are

• (1) Very High Storage Capacity

• (2) Permanent Storage (Non-volatile), Unless Erased By User

• (3) Relatively Slower Access

• (4) Stores Data And Instructions That Are Not Currently Being Used By CPU But May Be
Required Later For Processing

• (5) Cheapest Among All Memory.

For example, Magnetic Tape Drive and Magnetic Tape, Magnetic Disk Drive and Disk,
and, Optical Disk Drive and Disk.
 Secondary Memory Cont…
• With respect to CPU, the memory is organized as follows:

• Registers are placed inside the CPU (small capacity, high cost, very high
speed)

• Cache memory is placed next in the hierarchy (inside and outside the
CPU)

• Primary memory is placed next in the hierarchy

• Secondary memory is the farthest from CPU (large capacity, low cost,
low speed)
 Secondary Memory
• Secondary memory is also called the storage device of computer.

• It stores much larger amounts of data and information for extended

periods of time. Magnetic tape drives, magnetic disk drives, optical disk
drives and magneto-optical disk drives are the different types of storage
devices.

• Information stored on the storage devices can be assessed by two ways:

Sequential access
Direct access
 Storage Devices
• Storage devices are media for storing data. Often referred to as
secondary storage, storage devices can range from

• Computer software or programs in additions to data must be

stored in a computer-usable form.

• Software instructions must be retrieved from a permanent

storage device and placed into RAM for any processing to take
place.
 Generally, a secondary storage can be likened to a file cabinet in which
files (data) are stored until they are needed.

 Then you open the drawer, take out the appropriate folder or file, and
place it on top of your desk (in primary storage, or RAM), where you
work on it –either to write some few things on it or to remove and throw
some few pages away.

 However, in the case of electronic documents, you are actually taking

out a copy of the desired file and putting it on the desktop.
Storage Devices
• The original file remains in the file cabinet (secondary storage) while the
copy of the original is being edited or updated on the desktop (in the
RAM).

• After working on the file, you take it off the desktop (out of primary
storage) and return it to the cabinet (secondary storage). Thus the updated
file replaces the original file.

• Storage devices can be categorized in two ways. One is by their method

of storage the other is by method of access.
 Method of storage implies the technology used for storing or
writing information onto the storage medium.

 Most popular types of technology include magnetic, optical

and magneto-optical.

 Method of access implies the order in which information is

written to and read from the storage medium.
Storage Devices: Method of Access

Basically, we have two main types of access methods -sequential and

direct.
• To understand access methods, think about the difference between cassette tapes and
CDs.

• Cassettes use sequential method; music tracks are stored sequentially on them.

• On the other hand, CDs use direct access as such you can play any track by going
directly to it without having to fast forward or rewind to the track as with tapes.
Storage Devices: Method of Access

Storage devices fall into families of cassettes or CDs –tape or

disk. Tape storage devices use sequential access method and
magnetic storage method while disk devices use direct access
method and magnetic, optical or magneto-optical storage
methods.
Tape Storage Devices
• Magnetic tapes simply called tape drives used to be a common
secondary storage medium for large computer systems.

• However, these days magnetic tape is used mainly on large systems for
backup and archiving, maintaining historical records and on some
microcomputers for backup.

• Tape storage devices use a magnetic method of storage and a sequential

method of access to read and write information to and from a magnetic
tape. These are similar to cassette tapes.
 Disk Storage
• Disk storage devices are the most common storage device in use today.

• These types of devices are so named because of the shape of their storage medium. The
storage medium is called a disk; round platter on which information is written on tracks in
the form of concentric circles.

• The storage capacity of disk storage devices is measured in the same way as the internal
memory; kilobytes (KB), megabytes (MB), and gigabytes (GB).

• The storage capacity of magnetic disks ranges from few megabytes to several gigabytes;
billions of characters.

• Variations of magnetic disks include the floppy disks, internal hard disks and compact
 Optical Disks
Optical disks are removable disks on which data is written and read using laser
technology These disks store much more data than floppies. A single optical disk of
type called CD-ROM can hold up to 700 MB of data.

The main types of optical technology used with computers are:

• CD-ROM disks

• CD-R disks

• CD-RW disks

• DVD/DVD-ROM
 CD-ROM
• One of the most popular of optical disks is the CD-ROM –compact disk-read-only
memory.

• This type is used only to hold software programs and data.

• CD-ROM is much like the music CD; it is a read-only storage medium.

• Read-only means once data or information –which may include visuals and sound is
written on the disk from the factory, it cannot be overwritten or erased by the user.

• Most microcomputers have built-in CD-ROM drives.

• The faster the drive spins, the more quickly it can deliver data to the processor.
CD-R
• CD-R, which stands for compact disk-recordable, is a CD format that
allows users with CD-R drives to write data, only once, onto a specially
manufactured disk that can then be read by a standard CD-ROM drive.

• CD-R are now becoming the industry standard for backing up files on
the hard disk and for coping large volume of software programs and
data including audio visuals.

• A typical CD-R has a capacity 700 megabytes

CD-RW

• CD-RW stands for compact disk rewritable. It is

sometime referred to as erasable CD.

CD-RW allows users to erase data so that the disk can be

used over and over again just like the pen drive.
DVD-ROM
• The letters used to be interpreted as “digital video disk” and later, when its diverse

possibilities became obvious, for “digital versatile disk”.

• DVD is a silvery, 5-inch optically readable digital disk that looks like an audio compact

disk but can store up to 40 gigabytes.

• The computer version of DVD is called the DVD-ROM disk.

• It represents a new generation of high-density CD-ROM disks.

Hard Disks
• A hard disk cartridge is a disk storage device in which the disk
drive is separate from the hard disk storage medium.

• This type provides increased storage capacity of hard disks and

ability to change disk media, as with floppy disks.

• Hard card, often referred to as memory cards, this is a type of

hard disk that can be added to your system by inserting it into an
expansion slot.
 Hard disks have the advantage of capacity and speed.

 Seek time –the time it takes for read-write heads to move to the
correct track –measured in milliseconds (1000th of a second).

 Seek time for microcomputers hard disks ranges from 1 to 3ms.

 After the head reaches the desired data, it must wait for the disk to
rotate so the head is positioned over the correct sector; this rotation
time is called latency, which may be about 1 to 2ms for a hard
drive.
Hard Disks
• Access time is the sum of seek time and latency.

• Main disadvantage of hard disk remains the possibility of head

crash.

• A head crash happens when the surface of the read-write head

or particles on its surface come into contact with the disk
surface, causing the loss of some or all of the data on the disk.
 A head crash can also be caused by jarring or even power outage
when the hard disk is in use.

 Hard disk crash can be disastrous particularly if the data on it

has not been back up, so care has to be taken to backup your data
at all times.

 It is also strongly recommended that your system be always

connected to an uninterrupted power supply (UPS).
 Pen drives
• Pen drive is a portable USB flash memory device that can be used to
quickly transfer audio, video and data files from the hard drive of one
computer to another. It is physically small in size

• USB flash drives are typically removable and rewritable, much smaller
than a floppy disk, and most USB flash drives weigh less than an ounce
(30 g)

• Most flash drives use a standard type -USB interface -connection

allowing plugging into a port on a personal computer, but drives for other
interfaces also exist.
Communication Devices

• Communication devices make it possible for computers to

communicate with each other and share information and
other resources in a network environment.

• When the radius of the network is within a short range,

the network is called a Local Area Network (LAN) and if
the radius spans over long distances like cities and even
countries, it is called a Wide Area Network (WAN).
• Communication devices make it possible for computers to
communicate with each other and share information and other
resources in a network environment.

• When the radius of the network is within a short range, the

network is called a Local Area Network (LAN) and if the
radius spans over long distances like cities and even
countries, it is called a Wide Area Network (WAN).
Network Card for Communication

A network card
Computer Communication
• Computer communication is accomplished in
two ways. We have wired connection and
wireless connection.
• Wired connection is implemented with the use of
telephone lines and cables
• Wireless connection with the use of microwaves and radio waves

• In the transmission of information from one computer to another,

particularly wired connection which is most predominant, a piece of
hardware known as MODEM (modulator-demodulator modem)is
needed for conversion of signals from digital form into analog form
and vice-versa as transmission over telephone lines is in analog form
while computer data to be transferred are usually in digital form.
 Communication devices
Other forms of channels are the cables. In this
category, we have the coaxial cable and the fiber-optic
cable.
• Coaxial cable commonly called “co-ax”, consists of insulated
copper wire wrapped in a solid or braided metal shield, then
Coaxial Cable
in an external cover. Co-ax is mostly used for cable television
and to connect parts of a LAN over a long range.

• The world of telecommunications is rapidly moving from

copper wire networks to fiber optics. Optical fiber is a very
thin strand of pure glass which acts as a waveguide for light
Fiber Optic Cable
over long distances.
 Internal Data Representation
The two common binary coding schemes normally used in data
representation are the ASCII –and EBCDIC –codes.

• ASCII, which is an acronym for American Standard Code for Information

Interchange was later extended to accommodate more special characters and
the latter version was referred to as extended ASCII or ASCII-8.

• The latest of the versions is the ASCII-16 coding scheme which uses 16 bits.
ASCII is the most widely coding scheme used in microcomputers.
 Internal Data Representation
• Unicode or ASCII-16 which is a version of ASCII uses 2 bytes (16 bits) to
represent a character, instead of 1 byte (8 bits) and therefore can handle
65,536 characters rather than just 256

• EBCDIC stands for Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code is

the most widely used scheme in mainframe computers. Table 1.1 shows the
codes for the uppercase alphabetic letters and numerical digits, 0 to 9. (See
Table 1.1)
Internal Data Representation
 Machine Language
• Machine language –the language that the computer “speaks and
understands” –is the binary programming codes which can be
processed directly.

• Instructions in machine language consist of series of 0s and 1s

which could be quite tedious to read and write to humans.

• Machine language is machine dependent due to differences in

instruction sets.
 Thus each model or family of processors has a unique machine
language.

 To circumvent this problem, programmers write in special

programming languages –high level languages –that more closely
resemble human languages

 Codes in these high level languages such as BASIC or C++ are then
translated by system software programs called language translators
( Assemblers, Interpreters and compilers) into the machine language
that the particular type of processor can “understand”.
Types of Files
A file is a collection of related data or information that is identified by a unique
name and treated as a unit by the computer.

• Not all files however, can be used by all software.

• The format in which a file is saved must be compatible with the particular software
for the software to be able to use or process the file.

• Each file is given a unique named and a ― ”tag” (PC-based) or extension names
added after a period such as .DOC added onto the name of a Microsoft word-
processed document file (MYFILE.DOC).

• Normally, the applications software automatically adds an extension to file names.

Types of Files
The following are some common types of files:
Program files:

• These are files containing software instructions. Source program files contain high-
level computer instructions in their original form, written in a programming
language by computer programmers.

• Files that contain the machine language instructions are called executable files (or
binary files).

• These files can be identified as having the extension as .COM or .EXE

 Data Files
• Data files contain data, not programs –that is, they contain user-created text documents.

• Such documents are often created using application software programs.

• These files are given extension names by the software that was used to create them.

• Example is spreadsheet files created with Excel having .xls extensions or documents created

using word-processing software, such as Microsoft Word having .doc extensions.

 ASCII Files

• Also referred to as text files, these are plain text-only files.

They contain no formatting such as boldface or italics, and no
graphics. The characters are in ASCII code.

• This file format is used to transfer documents between

incompatible platforms, such as IBM and Macintosh. ASCII or
Text file usually have .txt extensions.
 Image Files
• These file types hold digitized graphics. They often have many different
extensions, depending on the software used to create them.

• Some examples are .JPG (still images compressed according to standards

of the Joint Photographic Experts Group), .GIF (graphics interchange
format), and .BMP (bitmap) files that use standard Windows graphics
format.
 Audio and Video Files
• Audio Files:
Audio files contain digitized sound. Common extensions are .WAV
and .MID

• Video Files:
Video files contain digitized video images. Common extensions
are .MPG (Moving Pictures Expert Groups) and also .AVI.