8.

1 INTRODUCTION OF TRANSDUCERS

• A transducer is a device that convert one form of energy

to other form. It converts the measurand to a usable
electrical signal.
• In other word it is a device that is capable of converting
the physical quantity into a proportional electrical
quantity such as voltage or current.

Pressure Voltage
 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF TRANSDUCERS

• Transducer contains two parts that are closely related to each

other i.e. the sensing element and transduction element.
• The sensing element is called as the sensor. It is device
producing measurable response to change in physical
conditions.
• The transduction element convert the sensor output to
suitable electrical form.
8.2 CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSDUCERS

The transducers can be classified as:

I. Active and passive transducers.

II. Analog and digital transducers.
III.On the basis of transduction principle used.
IV.Primary and secondary transducer
V. Transducers and inverse transducers.
 ACTIVE AND PASSIVE TRANSDUCERS
• Active transducers :
• These transducers do not need any external source of power
for their operation. Therefore they are also called as self
generating type transducers.
I. The active transducer are self generating devices which
operate under the energy conversion principle.
II. As the output of active transducers we get an equivalent
electrical output signal e.g. temperature or strain to electric
potential, without any external source of energy being used.
CLASSIFICATION OF ACTIVE TRANSDUCERS
 ACTIVE AND PASSIVE TRANSDUCERS
• Passive Transducers :
I. These transducers need external source of
power for their operation. So they are not
self generating type transducers.
II. A DC power supply or an audio frequency
generator is used as an external power
source.
III.These transducers produce the output
signal in the form of variation in
resistance, capacitance, inductance or
some other electrical parameter in
response to the quantity to be measured.
CLASSIFICATION OF PASSIVE
TRANSDUCERS
 PRIMARY AND SECONDARY
TRANSDUCERS
• Some transducers contain the mechanical as well as
electrical device. The mechanical device converts the physical
quantity to be measured into a mechanical signal. Such
mechanical device are called as the primary transducers,
because they deal with the physical quantity to be measured.
•The electrical device then convert this mechanical signal into
a corresponding electrical signal. Such electrical device are
known as secondary transducers.
•Ref fig in which the diaphragm act as primary
transducer. It convert pressure (the quantity to be
measured) into displacement(the mechanical signal).
•The displacement is then converted into change in
resistance using strain gauge. Hence strain gauge acts as
the secondary transducer.
CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSDUCERS
According to Transduction Principle
 CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSDUCERS
According to Transduction Principle
CAPACITIVE TRANSDUCER:
•In capacitive transduction transducers the measurand is converted to
a change in the capacitance.
• A typical capacitor is comprised of two parallel plates of
d
conducting material separated by an electrical insulating material
called a dielectric. The plates and the dielectric may be either
flattened or rolled. Area=A
• The purpose of the dielectric is to help the two parallel plates
maintain their stored electrical charges.
• The relationship between the capacitance and the size of capacitor
plate, amount of plate separation, and the dielectric is given by
C = ε0 εr A / d
d is the separation distance of plates (m) Either A, d or ε can be varied.
C is the capacitance (F, Farad)
ε0 : absolute permittivity of vacuum
εr : relative permittivity
A is the effective (overlapping) area of capacitor plates (m2)
 CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSDUCERS
According to Transduction Principle
ELECTROMAGNETIC TRANSDUCTION:
•In electromagnetic transduction, the measurand is
converted to voltage induced in conductor by change in
the magnetic flux, in absence of excitation.
•The electromagnetic transducer are self generating active
transducers
•The motion between a piece of magnet and an
electromagnet is responsible for the change in flux
Current induced in a coil.
 CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSDUCERS
According to Transduction Principle

INDUCTIVE TRANSDUCER:

•In inductive transduction, the measurand is converted

into a change in the self inductance of a single coil. It is
achieved by displacing the core of the coil that is
attached to a mechanical sensing element
 CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSDUCERS
According to Transduction Principle
PIEZO ELECTRIC INDUCTION :

•In piezoelectric induction the measurand is converted

into a change in electrostatic charge q or voltage V
generated by crystals when mechanically it is stressed
as shown in fig.
 CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSDUCERS
According to Transduction Principle
PHOTOVOLTAIC TRANSDUCTION :

•In photovoltaic transduction the measurand is

converted to voltage generated when the junction
between dissimilar material is illuminated as shown in
fig.
 CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSDUCERS
According to Transduction Principle
PHOTO CONDUCTIVE TRANSDUCTION :

•In photoconductive transduction the measurand is

converted to change in resistance of semiconductor
material by the change in light incident on the material.
CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSDUCERS
Transducer and Inverse Transducer

TRANSDUCER:

•Transducers convert non electrical quantity to

electrical quantity.

INVERSE TRANSDUCER:

• Inverse transducers convert electrical quantity to a

non electrical quantity
 PASSIVE TRANSDUCERS
• Resistive transducers :
– Resistive transducers are those transducers in which the
resistance change due to the change in some physical
phenomenon.
– The resistance of a metal conductor is expressed by a
simple equation.
– R = ρL/A
– Where R = resistance of conductor in Ω
L = length of conductor in m
A = cross sectional area of conductor in m2
ρ = resistivity of conductor material in Ω-m.
 8.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF
TRANSDUCERS
1. Ruggedness
2. Linearity
3. Repeatability
4. Accuracy
5. High stability and reliability
6. Speed of response
7. Sensitivity
8. Small size
8.4 TRANSDUCERS SELECTION FACTORS
1. Operating Principle: The transducer are many times selected
on the basis of operating principle used by them. The operating
principle used may be resistive, inductive, capacitive ,
optoelectronic, piezo electric etc.
2. Sensitivity: The transducer must be sensitive enough to
produce detectable output.
3. Operating Range: The transducer should maintain the range
requirement and have a good resolution over the entire range.
4. Accuracy: High accuracy is assured.
5. Cross sensitivity: It has to be taken into account when
measuring mechanical quantities. There are situation where the
actual quantity is being measured is in one plane and the
transducer is subjected to variation in another plan.
6. Errors: The transducer should maintain the expected input-
output relationship as described by the transfer function so as
to avoid errors.
 Contd.
7. Transient and frequency response : The transducer should meet
the desired time domain specification like peak overshoot, rise
time, setting time and small dynamic error.
8. Loading Effects: The transducer should have a high input
impedance and low output impedance to avoid loading effects.
9. Environmental Compatibility: It should be assured that the
transducer selected to work under specified environmental
conditions maintains its input- output relationship and does not
break down.
10. Insensitivity to unwanted signals: The transducer should be
minimally sensitive to unwanted signals and highly sensitive to
desired signals.
 8.5 RESISTIVE TRANSDUCER
There are 4 type of resistive transducers.

1. Potentiometers (POT)
2. Strain gauge
3. Thermistors
4. Resistance thermometer
 POTENTIOMETER
• The potentiometer are used for voltage division. They consist of a
resistive element provided with a sliding contact. The sliding contact
is called as wiper.
• The contact motion may be linear or rotational or combination of the
two. The combinational potentiometer have their resistive element
in helix form and are called helipots.
• Fig shows a linear pot and a rotary pot.
 8.6 STRAIN GAUGE
• The strain gauge is a passive, resistive transducer which
converts the mechanical elongation and compression into a
resistance change.
• This change in resistance takes place due to variation in length
and cross sectional area of the gauge wire, when an external
force acts on it.
 TYPES OF STRAIN GAUGE
• The type of strain gauge are as
1. Wire gauge
a) Unbonded
b) Bonded
c) Foil type
2. Semiconductor gauge
 UNBONDED STRAIN GAUGE
• An unbonded meter strain gauge is shown in fig
• This gauge consist of a wire stretched between two point in
an insulating medium such as air. The wires may be made of
various copper, nickel, crome nickle or nickle iron alloys.
• In fig the element is connected via a rod to diaphragm which
is used for sensing the pressure. The wire are tensioned to
avoid buckling when they experience the compressive force.
• The unbounded meter wire gauges used almost exclusively in
transducer application employ preloaded resistance wire
connected in Wheatstone bridge as shown in fig.
• At initial preload the strain and resistance of the four arms are
nominally equal with the result the output voltage of the
bridge is equal to zero.
• Application of pressure produces a small displacement , the
displacement increases or decreases a tension in two wire ,
which again increases or decreases resistance.
• This causes an unbalance of the bridge producing an output
voltage which is proportional to the input displacement and
hence to the applied pressure .
 BONDED STRAIN GAUGE
• The bonded metal wire strain gauge are used for both stress analysis and for
construction of transducer.
• A resistance wire strain gauge consist of a grid of fine resistance wire. The
grid is cemented to carrier which may be a thin sheet of paper bakelite or
teflon.
• The wire is covered on top with a thin sheet of material so as to prevent it
from any mechanical demage.
• The carrier is bonded with an adhesive material to the specimen which
permit a good transfer of strain from carrier to grid of wires.
 BONDED METAL FOIL STRAIN GAUGE
• It consist of following parts:
1. Base (carrier) Materials: several types of base material are used to support the
wires. Impregnated paper is used for room temp. applications.
2. Adhesive: The adhesive acts as bonding materials. Like other bonding operation,
successful starain gauge bonding depends upon careful surface preparation and use
of the correct bonding agent.
In order that the strain be faithfully transferred on to the strain gauge, the bond
has to be formed between the surface to be strained and the plastic backing material
on which the gauge is mounted .
.
It is important that the adhesive should be suited to this
backing and adhesive material should be quick
drying type and also insensitive to moisture.
3. Leads: The leads should be of such materials which
have low and stable resistivity and also a low
resistance temperature coefficent
 Contd.
• This class of strain gauge is only an extension of the bonded
metal wire strain gauges.
• The bonded metal wire starin gauge have been completely
superseded by bonded metal foil strain gauges.
• Metal foil strain gauge use identical material to wire strain
gauge and are used for most general purpose stress analysis
application and for many transducers.
 SEMICONDUCTOR GAUGE
• Semiconductor gauge are used in application where a high gauge factor is
desired. A high gauge factor means relatively higher change in resistance
that can be measured with good accuracy.
• The resistance of the semiconductor gauge change as strain is applied to it.
The semiconductor gauge depends for their action upon the piezo-resistive
effect i.e. change in value of resistance due to change in resistivity.
• Silicon and germanium are used as resistive material for semiconductor
gauges.
 8.7 INDUCTIVE TRANSDUCERS
• The inductive transducers are of the self generating
or the passive type. The self generating inductive
transducers use the basic generator principle i.e. the
motion between a conductor and magnetic field
induces a voltage in the conductor.
• The variable inductance transducers work on the
following principles.
• Variation in self inductance
• Variation in mutual inductance
 VARIABLE-INDUCTANCE
TRANSDUCERS
• An inductive electromechanical
transducer is a transducer which converts
the physical motion into the change in
inductance.

• Inductive transducers are mainly used

for displacement measurement.
 PRINCIPLE OF VARIATION OF SELF
INDUCTANCE
• Let us consider an inductive transducer having
N turns and reluctance R. when current I is
passed through the transducer, the flux
produced is
• Φ = Ni / R
• Differentiating w.r.t. to t,
• dΦ/dt = N/R * di/dt
• The e.m.f. induced in a coil is given by
• e = N * dΦ/dt
• Self inductance is given by
• reluctance of the magnetic circuit is R = Ɩ/μA
• Therefore L = N2 μA / Ɩ
• From eqn we can see that the self inductance may
vary due to
i. Change in number of turns N
ii. Change in geometric configuration
iii. Change in permeability of magnetic circuit
 PRINCIPLE OF CHANGE IN MUTUAL
INDUCTANCE
• Multiple coils are required for inductive transducers
that operate on the principle of change in mutual
inductance.
• The mutual inductance between two coils is given by
• M = KsqrtL1L2
• Where M : mutual inductance
• K : coefficient of coupling
• L1:self inductance of coil 1
• L2 : self inductance of coil 2
• By varying the self inductance or the coefficient of
coupling the mutual inductance can be varied
 LINEAR VARIABLE DIFFERENTIAL
TRANSFORMER(LVDT)
• AN LVDT transducer
comprises a coil former on to
which three coils are wound.
• The primary coil is excited
with an AC current, the
secondary coils are wound
such that when a ferrite core
is in the central linear
position, an equal voltage is
induced in to each coil.
• The secondary are connected
in opposite so that in the
central position the outputs
of the secondary cancels each
other out.
 LVDT contd…
• The excitation is applied to the primary
winding and the armature assists the
induction of current in to secondary
coils.
• When the core is exactly at the center
of the coil then the flux linked to both
the secondary winding will be equal.
Due to equal flux linkage the
secondary induced voltages (eo1 &
eo2) are equal but they have opposite
polarities. Output voltage eo is
therefore zero. This position is called
“null position”
• Now if the core is displaced from its null
position toward sec1 then flux linked to sec1
increases and flux linked to sec2 decreases.
Therefore eo1 > eo2 and the output voltage of
LVDT eo will be positive
• Similarly if the core is displaced toward sec2
then the eo2 > eo1 and the output voltage of
LVDT eo will be negative.
 8.8 INTRODUCTION

• The phototransistor is a transistor in which base

current is produced when light strikes the photosensitive
semiconductor base region.

• The collector-base P-N junction is exposed to incident

light through a lens opening in the transistor package.

• When there is no incident light, there is only a small

thermally generated collector-to-emitter leakage
current i.e. I(CEO), this is called the dark current and is
typically in the nA range.
When light strikes the collector-base pn junction,
a base current is produced that is directly
proportional to the light intensity.

Since the actual photo generation of base

current occurs in the collector-base region, the
larger the physical area of this region, the more
base current is generated.

A phototransistor does not activated at every

type of wave lengths of light.
 The phototransistor is similar to a regular BJT except that the base current is
produced and controlled by light instead of a voltage source.

The phototransistor effectively converts variations in light energy to an electrical

signal

The collector-base pn junction is exposed to incident light through a lens opening in

the transistor package.

The phototransistor is a transistor in which base current is produced when light

strikes the photosensitive semiconductor base region.

When there is no incident light, there is only a small thermally generated collector-to-
emitter leakage current i.e. I(CEO), this is called the dark current and is typically in the
range of nA.
 When light strikes the collector-base pn junction, a base current, I λ, is produced
that is directly proportional to the light intensity.
 This action produces a collector current that increases with I λ .

 Except for the way base current is generated, the phototransistor behaves as a
conventional BJT.

 In many cases there is no electrical connection to the base

 The relationship between the collector current and the light-generated base
current in a phototransistor is IC = βDC * Iλ .

53
 SYMBOL OF
PHOTOTRANSISTOR
A typical phototransistor is designed to offer a large area to the
incident light, as the simplified structure diagram in Figure:
Phototransistor are of two types.

1. Three Lead Phototransistor.

2. Two Lead Phototransistor.
1. Three Lead Phototransistor:

In the three-lead configuration, the base lead is

brought out so that the device can be used as a
conventional BJT with or without the additional
light-sensitivity feature.
2. Two Lead Phototransistor:

In the two-lead configuration. the base is not

electrically available, and the device can be
used only with light as the input. In many
applications, the phototransistor is used in the
two-lead version.
Phototransistor
Bias Circuit
Typical collector characteristic curves. Notice that each
individual curve on the graph corresponds to a certain
value of light intensity (in this case, the units are m
W/cm2) and that the collector current increases with light
intensity.
 8.9 RESISTANCE THERMOMETER

• Resistance of metal increase with increases in

temperature. Therefore metals are said to have a
positive temperature coefficient of resistivity.
• Fig shows the simplest type of open wire construction
of platinum résistance thermometer. The platinum
wire is wound in the form of spirals on an insulating
material such as mica or ceramic.
• This assembly is then placed at the tip of probe
• This wire is in direct contact with the gas or liquid
whose temperature is to be measured.
PRT( platinum resistance
thermometer)
 PRT
• The resistance of the platinum wire changes with the
change in temperature of the gas or liquid
• This type of sensor have a positive temperature
coefficient of resistivity as they are made from metals
they are also known as resistance temperature
detector
• Resistance thermometer are generally of probe type
for immersion in medium whose temperature is to be
measured or controlled.
 THERMISTOR
•Thermistor is a contraction of a term “thermal resistor”.
•Thermistor are temperature dependent resistors. They are
made of semiconductor material which have negative
temperature coefficient of resistivity i.e. their resistance
decreases with increase of temperature.
•Thermistor are widely used in application which involve
measurement in the range of 0-60º Thermistor are composed
of sintered mixture of metallic oxides such as magnese,
nickle, cobalt, copper, iron and uranium
Thermistors
•The thermistor may be in the form of beads, rods and
discs.
•The thermistor provide a large change in resistance for
small change in temperature. In some cases the
resistance of themistor at room temperature may
decreases as much as 6% for each 1ºC rise in
temperature.
 8.10 Thermocouples
See beck Effect
When a pair of dissimilar metals are joined at one end, and there is a
temperature difference between the joined ends and the open ends,
thermal emf is generated, which can be measured in the open ends.
This forms the basis of thermocouples.
8.11 Piezoelectric Transducer
 Summar
y
Thyristors

Thyristors are a class of semiconductor devices

characterized by 4-layers of alternating p- and n-
material. Four-layer devices act as either open or closed
switches; for this reason, they are most frequently used
in control applications.
Some thyristors and their symbols are

(a) 4-layer diode (b) SCR (c) Diac (d) Triac (e) SCS
 Summar
y
Thyristors

The concept of 4-layer devices is Anode

usually shown as an equivalent pn junction 1
circuit of a pnp and an npn Q1
transistor. Ideally, these devices
would not conduct, but when forward pn junction
2
biased, if there is sufficient leakage
current in the upper pnp device, it Q2

can act as base current to the lower

pn junction 3
npn device causing it to conduct and
Cathode
bringing both transistors into
saturation.
 Summar
y
The Four-Layer Diode

The 4-layer diode (or Shockley diode) is a type of

thyristor that acts something like an ordinary diode
but conducts in the forward direction only after a
certain anode to cathode voltage called the forward-
breakover voltage is reached.
The 4-layer diode has two leads, labeled the Anode (A) A
anode (A) and the cathode (K). The symbol
p
reminds you that it acts like a diode. It does 1
not conduct when it is reverse-biased. n
2
p
3
n

Cathode (K) K
 Summar
y
The Four-Layer Diode

The characteristic curve for a 4-layer diode shows the

forward blocking region. When the anode-to-cathode
voltage exceeds VBR, conduction occurs. The
switching current at this point is IS.
IA
Once conduction begins, it will
continue until anode current is Forward-
reduced to less than the conduction
On region
holding current (IH). This is
IH
the only way to stop IS
Off Forward-
conduction. VAK blocking
0 VBR(F)
region
 Summar
The SCR y A

The SCR had its roots in the 4-layer diode. By

adding a gate connection, the SCR could be
triggered into conduction. This improvement
G
made a much more useful device than the 4-
layer diode.
K

IA
The SCR can be turned on by
exceeding the forward
I H0 IG2 > IG1 IG1 > IG0 I = 0
breakover voltage or by gate G0

current. Notice that the gate I H1

current controls the amount I H2
VR VF
of forward breakover voltage 0 VBR(F 2) VBR(F1) VBR(F0)
required for turning it on. IR
 Summar
y
The SCR

Like the 4-layer diode, the SCR will conduct as long

as forward current exceeds IH. There are two ways to
drop the SCR out of conduction: 1) anode current
interruption and 2) forced commutation. +V
Anode current can be interrupted by breaking the anode
current path (shown here), providing a path around the SCR,
or dropping the anode voltage to the point that IA < IH. IA = 0

Force commutation uses an external circuit to momentarily RA

force current in the opposite direction to forward conduction.

SCRs are commonly used in ac circuits, which forces the G

SCR out of conduction when the ac reverses.
 Summar
SCR Specifications y

Three important SCR specifications are:

Forward-breakover voltage, VBR(F):
This is the voltage at which the SCR IF

Characteristi
enters the forward-conduction region. c for IG = 0 Forward-
conduction
region (on)
Holding current, IH: This is the value for IG = 0

of anode current below which the VR

VBR(R)
IH
VF
0 VBR(F)
SCR switches from the forward- Reverse-
Forward-
conduction region to the forward-
blocking
Reverse- region blocking
avalanche region (off)
blocking region. region

IR
Gate trigger current, IGT: This is the
value of gate current necessary to
switch the SCR from the forward-
blocking region to the forward-
conduction region under specified
conditions.
 Summar
y
SCR Applications

SCRs are used in a variety of power control

applications. One of the most common applications
is to use it in ac circuits to control a dc motor or
appliance because the SCR can both rectify and
control.
I
R1
A

The SCR is triggered on the R2

R4
positive cycle and turns off on R3
the negative cycle. A circuit like B
M
this is useful for speed control
for fans or power tools and
other related applications.
 Summar
y
SCR Applications

Another application for SCRs is in crowbar circuits

(which get their name from the idea of putting a
crowbar across a voltage source and shorting it out!)
The purpose of a crowbar SW Fuse

circuit is to shut down a power

supply in case of over-voltage. DC
power supply
VOUT

Once triggered, the SCR

latches on. The SCR can D1

handle a large current, which R1

causes the fuse (or circuit D2
VTRIG

breaker) to open. R3 R2

"Crowbar circuit"
 Summar
y A1

The Diac

The diac is a thyristor that acts like two back-to-

back 4-layer diodes. It can conduct current in
either direction. Because it is bidirectional, the A2

terminals are equivalent and labeled A1 and A I 2

. F

The diac conducts current after the

breakdown voltage is reached. At that
point, the diac goes into avalanche
IH
conduction, creating a current pulse VBR(R)
VR VF
sufficient to trigger another thyristor (an 0
–IH
VBR(F)
SCR or triac). The diac remains in
conduction as long as the current is
above the holding current, IH.
IR
 Summar
y
A1

The Triac

The triac is essentially a bidirectional SCR but the G A2

anodes are not interchangeable. Triggering is done
by applying a current pulse to the gate; breakover
triggering is not normally used.
When the voltage on the A1
terminal is positive with respect IA

to A2, a gate current pulse will

cause the left SCR to conduct. IH0 IG2 IG1 IG0

When the anode voltages are VBR(R0) VBR(R1 ) VBR(R2 )

IH1
IH2

reversed, the gate current pulse –VA

–IH2
VBR(F2) VBR(F1 ) VBR(F0 )
VA

–IH1
will cause the right SCR to –IG0 –IG1 –IG2 –IH0

conduct.
–I A
 Summar
y
Triac Applications

Triacs are used for control of ac in applications

like electric range heating controls, light dimmers,
and small motors.
Like the SCR, the triac
latches after triggering Triac on
and turns off when the RL
IL
current is below the IH, A1 Delay
which happens at the Vin angle
Conduction
end of each alteration. G
angle
A2
VG