Analyzing Data

Course Title: Advanced

Qualitative Research in Qualitative
Research
Professor: DR. HELEN B. AGGABAO
Presenter: JOYCE T. PABLO
 Theorizing from
qualitative data
Analyzing Data
in qualitative
research Collecting information

Triangulation of
different data sources
What is Qualitative Data Analysis?
Qualitative data analysis involves the
identification, examination, and
interpretation of patterns and themes in
textual data and determines how these
patterns and themes help answer the
research questions at hand.
• Qualitative data is collected through in-
person interactions and recorded in the
form of words, observations and images.
Compared to quantitative research, which
collects clear numerical data to draw
conclusions, qualitative research is most
often used to explore the how and why of
people’s emotions, behaviors and
perceptions.
• Interpreting and analyzing qualitative data
can be challenging and time-consuming.
It is a process that usually involves
reading through many pages of text-
based and visual data and notes, and
sometimes listening to hours of audio.
Therefore, the analysis process in
qualitative research typically begins as
soon as the data becomes available.
• Analyzing your data is vital to the
research process, especially since you
have likely spent a lot of time and
money collecting it. In an effort to
conduct the most beneficial analysis,
researchers should first understand the
two main approaches to qualitative data
analysis:
Approaches in
Analysis
  Two main approaches to qualitative data
analysis
• Inductive Approach • 2. Deductive Approach 
• In this approach, qualitative data is
• This is a thorough and time- analyzed based on a structure that
consuming approach to is predetermined by the researcher, who
qualitative data analysis with no can then develop and use questions as a
predetermined rules or structure. guide for analyzing the data. This
Researchers may use this approach is preferred when the
researcher wants to examine particular
approach in order to identify categories of information in relation to
emerging patterns to reflect what previous studies or theory. It can be
can be discovered. combined with an inductive approach.
 5 Steps to Qualitative Data Analysis
• Step 1: Arrange your Data
• Once you have collected all the data, it is largely unstructured and
sometimes makes no sense when looked at a glance. Therefore, it is essential
that as a researcher, you first need to transcribe the data collected. The first
step in analyzing your data is arranging it systematically. Arranging data
means converting all the data into a text format. You can either export the
data into a spreadsheet or manually type in the data or choose from any of
the computer-assisted qualitative data analysis tools.
 Step 2: Organize all your Data
• After transforming and arranging your data, the immediate next step is to
organize your data. There are chances you most likely have a large amount
of information that still needs to be arranged in an orderly manner. One of
the best ways to organize the data is by going back to your research
objectives and then organizing the data based on the questions asked.
Arrange your research objective in a table, so it appears visually clear. At
all costs, avoid the temptations of working with unorganized data. You
will end up wasting time, and there will be no conclusive results obtained.
 Step 3: Set a Code to the Data Collected

• Setting up proper codes for the collected data takes

you a step ahead. Coding is one of the best ways to
compress a tremendous amount of information
collected. The coding of qualitative data simply
means categorizing and assigning properties and
patterns to the collected data.
• Coding is an important step in qualitative data
analysis, as you can derive theories from relevant 
research findings. After assigning codes to your data,
you can then begin to build on the patterns to gain in-
depth insight into the data that will help make
informed decisions.
 Step 4: Validate your Data
• Validating data is one of the crucial steps of qualitative data analysis for
successful research. Since data is quintessential for research, it is imperative to
ensure that the data is not flawed. Please note that data validation is not just one
step in qualitative data analysis; this is a recurring step that needs to be followed
throughout the research process. There are two sides to validating data:
1. Accuracy of your research design or methods.
2. Reliability, which is the extent to which the methods produce accurate data
consistently. 
 Step 5: Concluding the Analysis Process
• It is important to finally conclude your data, which means systematically
presenting your data, a report that can be readily used. The report should
state the method that you, as a researcher, used to conduct the research
studies, the positives, and negatives and study limitations. In the report,
you should also state the suggestions/inferences of your findings and any
related areas for future research.
 Qualitative Data Analysis Methods

Once the data has been

captured, there are a variety
of analysis techniques
available and the choice is Content
Narrative Discourse Thematic
determined by your specific Analysis
research objectives and the Analysis Analysis Analysis
kind of data you’ve
gathered.  Common
approaches include:

Grounded Theory
 Content data Analysis
• This refers to the categorization, tagging and thematic analysis
of qualitative data. This can include combining the results of
the analysis with behavioral data for deeper insights.
 Narrative analysis
• Narrative analysis: Some qualitative
data, such as interviews or field
notes may contain a story. For
example, the process of choosing a
product, using it, evaluating its
quality and decision to buy or not
buy this product next time.
Narrative analysis helps understand
the underlying events and their
effect on the overall outcome.
 Discourse analysis:
• This refers to analysis of what
people say in social and cultural
context. It’s particularly useful
when your focus is on
 building or strengthening a brand.
 Framework analysis
• When performing qualitative data
analysis, it is useful to have a
framework. A code frame (a
hierarchical set of themes used in
coding qualitative data) is an example
of such framework.
 Grounded theory
• This method of analysis starts by
formulating a theory around a single
data case. Therefore, the theory is
“grounded’ in actual data. Then
additional cases can be examined to see
if they are relevant and can add to the
original theory.
The 5 steps to doing qualitative
data analysis
1.Gathering and collecting your qualitative
data
• There are a few common methods by which you can collect qualitative data:
 Interviews.
 Case studies.
 Secondary research (record keeping)
 Expert opinions.
 Focus groups.
 Online surveys (mobile, kiosk, desktop)
 Paper surveys.
 Observational studies.
 2. Organizing and 5 Steps to Organizing Your Qualitative Data

connecting into your

Choose and follow a clear file naming system.
qualitative data
Develop a data tracking system.

Establish and document transcription/translation

procedures.

Establish quality control procedures.

Establish a realistic timeline.

 Coding is the process of labeling and organizing
your qualitative data to identify different themes
and the relationships between them. 

3. Coding your qualitative

data Coding is a way of making sure your data is
valid. In other words, it helps ensure that
your analysis is undertaken systematically and
that other researchers can review it (in the world
of research, we call this transparency). In other
words, good coding is the foundation of high-
quality analysis.
 Now we are going to analyze our data to find insights.
This is where we start to answer our research questions.
Keep in mind that step 4 and step 5 (tell the story) have
some overlap. This is because creating visualizations is
both part of analysis and reporting.

4. Analyzing the
qualitative data
for insights The task of uncovering insights is to scour through the codes that
emerge from the data and draw meaningful correlations from them.
It is also about making sure each insight is distinct and has enough
data to support it.
 5. Reporting on the insights derived from your analysis

• The last step of analyzing your qualitative

data is to report on it, to tell the story. At this
point, the codes are fully developed and the
focus is on communicating the narrative to
the audience.
Theorizing Qualitative
Data
 Theorizing Qualitative Data
• Theorizing involves making convincing inferences to
explanations grounded in data, such that it is a process of
abstraction by the researcher that maintains a capacity to frame
understanding and interpretation for others (Cornelissen and
Durand 2014; Welch et al.
Why use theories in qualitative research?
• Theories such as interactionism, phenomenology, and critical theory can
be used to help design a research question, guide the selection of relevant
data, interpret the data, and propose explanations of causes or influences.
 Why is theory useful?
• Theories provide complex and comprehensive conceptual understandings
of things that cannot be pinned down: how societies work, how
organisations operate, why people interact in certain ways. Theories give
researchers different “lenses” through which to look at complicated
problems and social issues, focusing their attention on different aspects of
the data and providing a framework within which to conduct their
analysis.
 What are examples of theories used by
qualitative researchers?
• Phenomenology
• This theory was originally developed by Edmund Husserl to explain how individuals give
meanings to social phenomena in their everyday lives. The role of phenomenology was
therefore to explore “the essence of consciousness as experienced from the first-person point
of view.” Studies that draw upon this theoretical perspective concentrate on exploring how
individuals make sense of the world in terms of the meanings and classifications they employ.
• As such, phenomenology aims to provide accounts that offer an insight into the subjective
“lived” experience of individuals. Given the emphasis, phenomenological studies do not
attempt to generate wider explanations; rather their focus is on providing research accounts
for individuals in a specific setting.
 Interactionism

• In contrast to the phenomenological focus on understanding individual

perceptions, interactionism concentrates on exploring collective (group or
team) behaviours and perceptions. Originally developed by George Mead,
this approach aimed to provide an understanding of individuals’
interactions by examining the symbols, especially the language, they use
in their daily encounters.
 Critical theory
• Critical theory is oriented towards critiquing and changing society as a
whole. Critical theorists study how the construction of knowledge and the
organisation of power in society generally, and in institutions such as
schools, hospitals, and governments specifically, can lead to the
subjugation or oppression of particular individuals, groups, or
perspectives.
Collecting Information
`
Data collection techniques allow us to systematically called information
about our subject of study (people, objects, phenomena) and about the
settings in which they occur.

In the collection of data we have to be systematic. If data are collected

haphazardly, it will be difficult to answer our research.
• Qualitative data collection methods are exploratory in nature and are mainly
concerned with gaining insights and understanding on underlying reasons and
motivations. Qualitative data is a linguistic or visual material. Qualitative data
collection methods emerged after it became evident that traditional quantitative
data collection methods were unable to express human feelings and emotions.
• Monette et al (2010)[1] credit qualitative methods with the acknowledgement of
abstraction and generalisation. Polonsky and Waller (2011)[2] categorize
vision, images, forms and structures in various media, as well as, spoken and
printed word and recorded sound into qualitative data collection methods.
 Human feelings and
Qualitative experiences
data collection
methods are
used in order Meanings and
to examine the
following
relationships
phenomenon:
Social norms and
cultural practices.
• It is noted that “qualitative methods are often regarded as providing
rich data about real life people and situations and being more able
to make sense of behaviour and to understand behaviour within its
wider context. However, qualitative research is often criticised for
lacking generalizability, being too reliant on the subjective
interpretations by researchers and being incapable of replication by
other researchers.
 Triangulation Method
•Let us define Triangulation

•Triangulation is a method used to increase the credibility

and validity of research findings.

• Credibility refers to trustworthiness and how believable a

study is; validity is concerned with the extent to which a
study accurately reflects or evaluates the concept or ideas
being investigated.
 1) data triangulation, which includes matters such
as periods of time, space and people;

(2) investigator triangulation, which includes the

Four types of use of several researchers in a study; 

triangulation (3) theory triangulation, which encourages several

theoretical schemes to enable interpretation of a
proposed by phenomenon and

Denzin  (4) methodological triangulation, which promotes

the use of several data collection methods such as
interviews and observations.
 1. Methodological Triangulation
• In the most widely-used type of triangulation the researcher off-sets the
weaknesses of one method with the strengths of another as a means of
improving the reliability and validity of their research. A combination of
methods can give a more rounded picture of someone's life and behaviour;
a researcher could, for example, observe a respondent's behaviour using
participant observation and also question them about why they did
something.
• When you use methodological triangulation, you use different methods to
approach the same research question.
• This is the most common type of triangulation, and researchers often
combine qualitative and quantitative research methods in a single study.
 Example: Methodological triangulation

• In your study, you use behavioral, survey, and neural data to get a
complete picture of what motivates people to behave cooperatively.
• You recruit participants to perform team games in a behavioral 
controlled lab experiment and record observations. You also administer a 
survey to gather data about cooperation in their daily lives. Finally, you
perform fMRI scans to assess neural mechanisms of cooperation.
• Methodological triangulation is useful because you avoid the flaws and 
research bias that come with reliance on a single research technique.
 2. Data triangulation

• In data triangulation, you use multiple data sources to

answer your research question. You can vary your 
data collection across time, space, or different people.
• Example: Data triangulation
• To understand the motivations behind
cooperative behavior, you compile and analyze
data from a sample of 130 Japanese students
over a period of 8 months. Then, you repeat the
experiment with comparable samples in different
regions worldwide.
You collect data from participants in Germany
and US to test your hypothesis using a wider
sample.
When you collect data from different samples,
places, or times, your results are more likely to
be generalizable to other situations.
3. Investigator triangulation

With investigator triangulation, you involve multiple

observers or researchers to collect, process, or analyze data
separately.
• Example: Investigator triangulation
• For your behavioral data, you involve multiple observers to code your participants’ behaviors. You
provide them with training sessions and a manual to follow closely so they code behaviors the
exact same way.
• They review video recordings of your participants playing team games in pairs and analyze and
note down any cooperative behaviors. You check that their code sheets line up with each other to
ensure high interrater reliability.
• They also recalibrate the way they code behaviors intermittently for consistency.
Investigator triangulation helps you reduce the risk of observer bias and other experimenter biases.
 4. Theory triangulation

• Triangulating theory means applying several

different theoretical frameworks in your
research instead of approaching a research
question from just one theoretical perspective.
• Example: Theory triangulation
• You believe there are two main competing motivational theories for why
people behave cooperatively.
1. People cooperate for a sense of reward: they cooperate to feel good.
2. People cooperate to avoid guilt: they cooperate to avoid feeling bad.
• By gathering fMR data, you can investigate whether there’s more brain
activity in reward-related or in guilt-averse brain areas when people cooperate.
• Testing competing hypotheses is one way to
perform theory triangulation. Using theory
triangulation may help you understand a research
problem from different perspectives or reconcile
contradictions in your data.
• Therefore, what is the purpose of triangulation?
• Researchers use triangulation for a more holistic perspective on a specific research question.
Triangulation is also helpful for enhancing credibility and validity.
• To cross-check evidence
• It’s important to gather high-quality data for rigorous research. When you have data from only one
source or investigator, it may be difficult to say whether the data are trustworthy.
• But if data from multiple sources or investigators line up, you can be more certain of their credibility.
• Credibility is about how confident you can be that your findings reflect reality. The more your data
converge, or agree with each other, the more credible your results will be.
• For a complete picture
• Triangulation helps you get a more complete understanding of your
research problem.
• When you rely on only one data source, methodology, or investigator, you
may risk bias in your research. Observer bias may occur when there’s only
one researcher collecting data. Similarly, using just one methodology
means you may be disadvantaged by the inherent flaws and limitations of
that method.
It’s helpful to use triangulation when you want to capture
the complexity of real-world phenomena. By varying your
data sources, theories, and methodologies, you gain insights
into the research problem from multiple perspectives and
levels.

To enhance validity

Validity is about how accurately a method measures what

it’s supposed to measure.

You can increase the validity of your research through

triangulation. Since each method has its own strengths and
weaknesses, you can combine complementary methods that
account for each other’s limitations.
 References:
• https://www.scribbr.com/methodology/triangulation/
• http://www.sociology.org.uk/notes/SocShortcuts_methods11.pdf
• https://education.nsw.gov.au/teaching-and-learning/school-excellence-and-accountability/sef-eviden
ce-guide/guidelines-for-using-data/analysing-qual-data
• http://toolkit.pellinstitute.org/evaluation-guide/analyze/analyze-qualitative-data/
• https://www.gcu.edu/blog/doctoral-journey/qualitative-data-analysis-methods-your-dissertation
• https://www.questionpro.com/blog/qualitative-data/
• http://toolkit.pellinstitute.org/evaluation-guide/analyze/analyze-qualitative-data/#:~:text=Qualitative
%20data%20analysis%20involves%20the,the%20research%20questions%20at%20hand.
 The future
• “

belongs to those
who believe in the
beauty of their
dreams.” -Eleanor
Roosevelt
• THANK YOU AND HAVE A
BLESSED DAY EVERYONE!!!!