04/08/2023 SRMIST - ECE - SEM 5 - ADC - M2 1

MODULE - 2
RADIO TRANSMITTERS AND RECIEVERS
_________________________________
 AM transmitter: Low Level, High Level Transmitter, FM
transmitter: Direct Method, Indirect Method

 Classification of radio receiver, Functions and Characteristics

of radio receiver, Tuned Radio Frequency Receiver, Super-
heterodyne receiver- AM, Super-heterodyne receiver- FM

 Sources of Noise, Noise in AM (Envelope Detection), Noise in

FM, Threshold effect, Pre-emphasis and De-emphasis
04/08/2023 SRMIST - ECE - SEM 5 - ADC - M2 2
04/08/2023 SRMIST - ECE - SEM 5 - ADC - M2 3

AM Transmitters – An Introduction
• AM transmitters are used in medium wave (MW) and short wave
(SW) frequency bands for AM broadcast.
• MW band frequencies - between 550 KHz and 1650 KHz, & SW
band frequencies - from 3 MHz to 30 MHz. 
• Two types of AM transmitters are used based on their transmitting
powers: High Level and Low Level
• High level transmitters use high level modulation, and low level
transmitters use low level modulation.
• Choice between two modulation schemes depends on the
transmitting power of the AM transmitter.
• In broadcast transmitters, where the transmitting power may be of
the order of kilowatts, high level modulation is employed. In low
power transmitters, where only a few watts of transmitting power
are required, low level modulation is used.
04/08/2023 SRMIST - ECE - SEM 5 - ADC - M2 4

AM Transmitter – Low Level

Every radio station is assigned a different carrier frequency.

Suppose, if the carrier frequency is 1 MHz, it is good to have a MO to
generate a sub-harmonic frequency of 250 kHz. It is because stable carrier
oscillators are easy to produce at lower frequencies. This can later be
increased 4 times by a harmonic generator to 1 MHz.
04/08/2023 SRMIST - ECE - SEM 5 - ADC - M2 5

Master Oscillator
Master Oscillator (MO):
• It must produce an accurate and steady frequency.
• If the oscillator drifts off frequency, the receiver will be unable to receive the
transmitted signal without being readjusted.
• In case, if the oscillator drifts onto the frequency being used by another radio
station, interference will occur. This is hardly desirable.
• Frequency Drift: occurs due to variation of circuit parameters with temperature
variation or aging. May be  20 Hz or 0.002% of carrier frequency.
• Frequency Scintillation: abrupt changes in the MO frequency due to abrupt
changes in the load on MO.
• How to avoid? :
(i) MO should be kept in constant temperature chamber to avoid
change of circuit parameters with respect to temperature.
(ii) Stabilized power supply should be used in the MO circuit.
(iii) Buffer amplifier must be used in between MO and other stages.
(iv) MO should generate a sub-harmonic of the carrier frequency.
04/08/2023 SRMIST - ECE - SEM 5 - ADC - M2 6

Buffer Amplifier
Buffer Amplifier:
• If the current drawn from the oscillator's output is increased or
decreased, the oscillator’s frequency has been increased or
decreased (pulled).
• The buffer amplifier is a relatively low-gain amplifier that follows
the oscillator. It has a constant input impedance (resistance).
Therefore, the it always draws the same amount of current from
the oscillator. This helps to prevent "pulling" of the oscillator
frequency.
• The buffer amplifier is needed because right after this stage is the
nonlinear amplifier modulator which may not have a constant
input resistance.
• But since there is a buffer amplifier between the oscillator and
modulator, the oscillator sees a steady load resistance.
04/08/2023 SRMIST - ECE - SEM 5 - ADC - M2 7

Harmonic Generator
Harmonic Generator:
• When a signal (f) is applied to a non-linear harmonic circuit, it
generates harmonics of the input frequency (2f, 3f, 4f,…). The
desired harmonic is selected by a properly tuned circuit.
The circuit uses a class C
tuned amplifier in which
the current flows in the form of pulses containing
harmonics of the input frequency, ωc. If the pulse train is
passed through a resonant tuned circuit to nωc,
the nth harmonic will be selected and others will be rejected.
04/08/2023 SRMIST - ECE - SEM 5 - ADC - M2 8

Modulating Amplifier & Modulator

Modulating Amplifier:
• In order for the modulator to function, it needs an information signal. A
microphone only produces a few millivolts of signal. This simply isn't
enough to operate the modulator, so a voltage amplifier is used to boost
the microphone's signal.
• The signal level at the output of the AF voltage amplifier is usually at least
1 volt RMS; it is highly dependent upon the transmitter's design.
• The power levels are quite small at the output of this amplifier; a few mW
at best.
Modulator:
• The stabilized RF carrier signal feeds one input of the modulator stage.
The modulator is a variable-gain (nonlinear) amplifier. To work, it must
have an RF carrier signal and an AF information signal.
• In a low-level transmitter, the power levels are low in the MO, buffer, and
modulator stages; typically, the modulator output is around 10 mW or less.
04/08/2023 SRMIST - ECE - SEM 5 - ADC - M2 9

Tuned Power Amplifier

Tuned Power Amplifier:
• The class B tuned RF power amplifier is normally built with
several stages. These stages increase both the voltage and
current of the AM signal.
• In order to accurately amplify the tiny AM signal from the
modulator, the RF power amplifier stages must be linear.
• You might recall that amplifiers are divided up into
"classes," according to the conduction angle of the active
device within.
• Class A and class B amplifiers are considered to be linear
amplifiers, so the RF power amplifier stages will normally be
constructed using one or both of these type of amplifiers.
04/08/2023 SRMIST - ECE - SEM 5 - ADC - M2 10

Matching Networks & Antenna Coupler

Matching Networks & Antenna Coupler:
• It performs two important jobs: Impedance matching and filtering.
• For an RF power amplifier to function correctly, it must be supplied with a
load resistance equal to that for which it was designed. 50 ohms would be
an optimal value, since most antennas and transmission lines are 50 ohms.
• Suppose, if the RF power amplifier needs to see 25 ohms, LC resonant
circuits can also be used.
• The antenna coupler also acts as a low-pass filter (LPF). This filtering
reduces the amplitude of harmonic energies that may be present in the
power amplifier's output.
• For example, the transmitter may be tuned to operate on 1000 kHz. Because
of small nonlinearities in the amplifiers of the transmitter, the transmitter will
also produce harmonic energies on 2000 kHz (2nd harmonic), 3000 kHz (3rd
harmonic), and so on.
• The low-pass filter passes the fundamental frequency (1000 kHz) and rejects
the harmonics.
04/08/2023 SRMIST - ECE - SEM 5 - ADC - M2 11

Feeder and Antenna

Feeder and Antenna:
• The transmitter power is fed to a transmitting antenna for
effective radiation.
• The antenna is normally located at a distance from the
transmitter and hence power from the transmitter is fed to
the antenna through a properly designed transmission line
called feeder.
• The impedance of the feeder line must be properly
matched with the transmitter impedance at one end, and
with antenna impedance at the other end.
04/08/2023 SRMIST - ECE - SEM 5 - ADC - M2 12

Low level Versus High Level

AM Transmitters
Low Level High Level

Can produce any kind of modulation; Are restricted to generating AM

AM, FM, or PM. modulation only.

Require linear RF power amplifiers, Have better DC efficiency than low-

which reduces DC efficiency and level transmitters, and are very well
increases production costs. suited for battery operation.

Carrier is modulated first and then Carrier is power amplified first and
power amplification takes place then finally modulation takes place
04/08/2023 SRMIST - ECE - SEM 5 - ADC - M2 13

AM Transmitter – High Level

• The difference in the high level transmitter is where the modulation takes
place. Instead of adding modulation immediately after buffering, this type of
transmitter amplifies the unmodulated RF carrier signal first.
• The modulation process in a high-level transmitter takes place in the last or
final power amplifier. First, it provides power gain for the RF carrier signal,
and also performs the task of modulation.
• The final power amplifier in a high-level transmitter usually operates in class
C, which is a highly nonlinear amplifier class.
04/08/2023 SRMIST - ECE - SEM 5 - ADC - M2 14

Crosby Direct FM Transmitter

• A stable oscillation frequency at a lower RF (say 4 MHz)is
generated by an oscillator and then it is raised to the final
carrier (say 96 MHz) by frequency multipliers.

• The Crosby system was an FM stereophonic broadcasting

standard developed by Murray G. Crosby.
04/08/2023 SRMIST - ECE - SEM 5 - ADC - M2 15

Description of Crosby Direct FM Transmitter

• The audio signal from the output of the microphone is sent to the AF pre-
amplifier to boost the level of the modulating signal.
• This signal is then passed to high pass filter, which acts as a pre-emphasis
network to filter out the noise and improve the signal to noise ratio for
threshold improvement.
• This signal is passed to the FM modulator circuit which uses parameter
variation method.
• The oscillator circuit generates a high frequency carrier, which is sent to the
modulator along with the modulating signal.
• Several stages of frequency multiplier are used to increase the operating
frequency and frequency deviation.
• Even then, the power of the signal is not enough to transmit. Hence, a RF
power amplifier is used at the end to increase the power of the modulated
signal.
• This FM modulated output is finally passed to the antenna to be
transmitted.
04/08/2023 SRMIST - ECE - SEM 5 - ADC - M2 16

Frequency Stabilization System

• If a crystal oscillator is used to provide the carrier signal, the frequency cannot be varied
too much (It always gives a fixed frequency). Thus, crystal oscillators cannot be used in
broadcast FM, but other oscillators can suffer from frequency drift.
• An automatic frequency control (AFC) circuit is used in conjunction with a non-crystal
oscillator to ensure that the frequency drift is minimal.

• The AFC loop aims to increase the stability of the output without using a crystal oscillator
in the modulator.
04/08/2023 SRMIST - ECE - SEM 5 - ADC - M2 17

Description on AFC Circuit

• The modulated carrier signal is mixed with a crystal reference
signal in a non-linear device.
• The band-pass filter (after Mixer) provides the difference in
frequency between the master oscillator and the crystal oscillator
and this signal is fed into the frequency discriminator.
• The frequency discriminator produces an error voltage proportional
to the difference between the input frequency and its resonant
frequency. When the FM wave has frequency exactly equal to the
assigned carrier frequency (no drift), the error signal is zero;
otherwise a d.c. error signal of proper polarity is generated.
• The low-pass filter ensures that the frequency discriminator does
not correspond to the frequency deviation in the FM signal.
• The amplified voltage of proper polarity is applied to a VCO in
order to correct the transmitter frequency to the assigned value
04/08/2023 SRMIST - ECE - SEM 5 - ADC - M2 18

Indirect FM Transmitter (Armstrong method)

Basic Principle:
• Generate a NBFM indirectly by using Phase-Modulation Technique
and then convert this NBFM into WBFM.
• Phase modulation is preferred because of its easy generation
schemes.
• Distortion is low in NBFM as the modulation index is small.
04/08/2023 SRMIST - ECE - SEM 5 - ADC - M2 19

An Illustration to Armstrong Method

• Assume the desired fc = 90 MHz and f =75 kHz, the fc1 =
200 kHz and f =25 Hz corresponding to mf = 0.5 and fm =
50MHz. Baseband spectrum is 25 Hz to 15 kHz. The
resonant frequency of crystal oscillator is 10.925 MHz.
04/08/2023 SRMIST - ECE - SEM 5 - ADC - M2 20

Solution
• The multiplication factor needed for the desired frequency deviation is 75 kHz /
25 Hz = 3000.
• The multiplication factor needed for the desired carrier frequency is 90 MHz /
200 kHz = 450.
• Choose the multiplication factors of frequency multiplier stages so that n 1 n2
=3000. ………………………………(1)
• Before second multiplication, carrier frequency at the output of first multiplier is
shifted downward to (nf1 – f2) by mixing it with fc2 . The shifted frequency is
increased n2 times by second multiplier to get desired f c = 90 MHz. So,
n2(n1fc1 – fc2 ) = fc. ………………………………………..(2)
On substituting the values, we get n2(0.2n1 – 10.925 ) = 90.
Solving (1) and (2), we get n1= 64.3; n2 = 46.7
Multiplication may be done by factors of 2 and 3, i.e., n 1= 64 =24; n2=48 = 3 x24.
Using these multiplication factors, we get the set of values (as shown) for initial
value of f =24.4 Hz .
04/08/2023 SRMIST - ECE - SEM 5 - ADC - M2 21

Numerical Exercises on Armstrong Method

• Design (the block diagram of) an Armstrong indirect FM
modulator to generate an FM carrier with a carrier frequency of
96 MHz and Δf = 20 kHz. A narrowband FM generator with fc =
200 kHz and adjustable Δf in the range of 9 to 19 Hz is available.
The stockroom also has an oscillator with adjustable frequency
in the range of 9 to 10 MHz. There are bandpass filters with any
center frequency, and only frequency doublers are available.
• Design an Armstrong indirect FM modulator in block diagram to
generate an FM signal with carrier 96.3 MHz and Δf = 20.48
kHz. A narrowband FM generator with fc = 150 kHz and Δf = 10
Hz is available. Only a limited number of frequency doublers are
available as frequency multipliers. In addition, an oscillator with
adjustable frequency from 13 to 14 MHz is also available for
mixing, along with bandpass filters of any specification.
04/08/2023 SRMIST - ECE - SEM 5 - ADC - M2 22

Classification of Radio Receivers

TRF receiver is simple, cheap and

performs satisfactorily In medium
wave frequencies.

“Heterodyne” means mixing of two different frequencies in a nonlinear

device to produce new frequencies that are sums and differences of the
applied frequencies and their harmonics.
“Superheterodyne” receiver produces only (f1 – f2) above the hearing range.
The prefix Super means supersonic.
04/08/2023 SRMIST - ECE - SEM 5 - ADC - M2 23

Functions of Radio Receiver

* The radio receivers receive the incoming modulated carrier by the receiving antennas
(INTERCEPTION).
(1). Then they select the wanted signal from the carrier and reject the unwanted signals
and noise (SELECTION); and the received signal is then amplified by the RF
amplifiers (RF AMPLIFICATION).
(2). Detection of the information signal is done from the received carrier (DETECTION).
(3) & (4). The information or the modulating signal is then filtered and amplified (AUDIO
voltage and power AMPLIFICATION).
* Output of audio amplifier is fed into a speaker for producing sound according to input
audio signal (REPRODUCTION).
04/08/2023 SRMIST - ECE - SEM 5 - ADC - M2 24

Descriptions on Functions of Radio Receivers

• INTERCEPTION: A single receiving antenna intercepts radio waves of all
frequencies coming from various transmitting stations which contain electrical
energy in the form of EM wave. When the EM wave is intercepted by the antenna, a
voltage is induced in it.
• SELECTION: Although a large number of modulated signals coming from various
transmitters is intercepted by the antenna, only one desired signal is selected by
using a LC tank (tuned) circuit, either by changing L or C.
• RF AMPLIFICATION: The selected radio signal is amplified by a class C tuned
amplifier so that the following linear diode detector may operate in linear region and
the amplified voltage suppresses the effect of noise.
• DETECTION: Recovering the baseband (modulating) signal from a modulated
signal.
• AUDIO AMPLIFICATION: Detected audio signal is amplified to drive the speaker. It
has one R-C coupled amplifier (voltage) and one class-B push-pull power amplifier
(power).
• REPRODUCTION: The electrical signal is converted into a desired physical
message. Commercially, output of audio amplifier is fed into a speaker for producing
sound according to input audio signal.
04/08/2023 SRMIST - ECE - SEM 5 - ADC - M2 25

Characteristics of Radio Receivers

(sensitivity, selectivity, and fidelity)
• Sensitivity: It is the receiver’s ability to detect weakest possible
signal. The weaker the signal that can be applied and still produce a
certain signal-to-noise (S/N) ratio, the better that receiver’s sensitivity.
The sensitivity of a receiver is decided by the gain of its amplifying
stages.
• Selectivity: It is the receiver’s ability to distinguish between two
adjacent modulated signals. This decides its ability to select the
desired signal and to reject unwanted signals. The degree of selection is
determined by the sharpness of resonance to which the frequency-
determining circuits have been designed and tuned.
The sharper the resonance curve,
the better the selectivity (curve 1).
i.e., the receiver has greater
capability to reject unwanted
signals.
04/08/2023 SRMIST - ECE - SEM 5 - ADC - M2 26

Characteristics of Radio Receivers (contd…)

•  Fidelity: It is a receiver’s ability to reproduce faithfully

all the frequency components present in the
baseband signal.
If any component is missed or attenuated considerably,
fidelity suffers and the reproduced signal is distorted.
This feature is mainly decided by the bandwidth of the
audio amplifier.
Note that most receivers are a compromise between good
selectivity and high fidelity.
04/08/2023 SRMIST - ECE - SEM 5 - ADC - M2 27

Tuned Radio Frequency Receiver

04/08/2023 SRMIST - ECE - SEM 5 - ADC - M2 28

Superheterodyne Receiver – AM (invented by US

engineer Edwin Armstrong in 1918 during World War I
• Signals enter the receiver from the antenna and are applied to the RF amplifier where
they are tuned to remove the image signal and also reduce the general level of
unwanted signals.
• The signals are then applied to the mixer along with the local oscillator where the
wanted signal is converted down to the intermediate frequency (455 kHz). Here
significant levels of amplification are applied and the signals are filtered.
• Once  filtered the next block is the demodulator. This could be for AM, SSB, FM or
indeed any form of modulation. The final element is an audio amplifier which is then
sent to a speaker for producing the sound of baseband signal.

Link

Red colour – RF , Green colour – IF , Blue colour – AF of operation

04/08/2023 SRMIST - ECE - SEM 5 - ADC - M2 29

RF Amplifier
• The term super heterodyne refers to mix two frequencies
together so as to produce a a fixed 
intermediate frequency (IF) 455 kHz, namely the
difference between the two that is lower than the original
signal. fi = fl - fc
RF Amplifier: A class C tuned voltage amplifier and used for
1. Amplification of the received radio signal to provide
better sensitivity and improved S/N ratio.
2. Rejection of unwanted signals and an improved
adjacent channel selectivity.
3. Rejection of the image signal.
04/08/2023 SRMIST - ECE - SEM 5 - ADC - M2 30

Image Signal
Image Signal:  An image frequency is an undesired input
frequency equal to the desired station frequency,fc plus
twice the intermediate frequency,fi. The unwanted
frequency is called the image of the wanted frequency.
and
Since we get,
• The image signal is 2fi more than fc
• If the image signal is intercepted by antenna and reaches the mixer, it
produces the same IF as produced by the desired signal fc . The desired
signal produces Whereas, the image signal produces
This IF signal produced by the image signal is also amplified by the IF amplifier
and produces interference in the receiver output and hence to be rejected.
The RF amplifier has one more tuned circuit to attenuate the image frequency.
04/08/2023 SRMIST - ECE - SEM 5 - ADC - M2 31

Mixer Circuit
• It is a non-linear circuit that mixes incoming fc with a local
oscillator voltage of frequency fl and produces
, fc , fl and their harmonics. The desired intermediate
frequency fi (= fl – fc) is selected by the tuned circuit called
IFT by the process called inductive tuning.
A mechanically coupled system is
provided to gang the capacitors
of the LO, front-end RF amplifier
circuit and the mixer input tuned
circuit for the simultaneous tuning
to a frequency and this
process Is called as tracking.

This mixer is also known as first

detector.
 04/08/2023 SRMIST - ECE - SEM 5 - ADC - M2 32

Local Oscillator
(mostly Armstrong or Hartley Oscillator)
The LO frequency is always kept higher than the signal frequency fc by an
amount equal to IF 455 kHz. Why?
(1) For medium wave (550 kHz – 1650 kHz), the maximum to minimum
capacitance ratio required by signal section of ganged capacitor is
When LO frequency is kept higher, it is
They are quite close to each other. Also usual ganged capacitors have a
ratio of 10:1.
In case, if LO frequency is kept lower,
This ratio is beyond the limits imposed by tuning capacitor of signal section.
(2) When LO frequency is kept higher, the ratio 1005/550 = 1.83 and
2105/550 = 1.28. The variation is quite small.
If LO frequency is kept lower, the ratio 550/95 = 5.79 and 1650/1195 = 1.38.
The variation is quite large comparatively and can result in tracking errors.
04/08/2023 SRMIST - ECE - SEM 5 - ADC - M2 33

IF Amplifier
• They are tuned voltage amplifiers. Most of the receiver gain is provided here.
• More than one stage is used to get a good sensitivity.
• The output of IF amplifier appears across a tuned transformer circuit. For n stages,
total number of IFT needed is n+1.
Choice of IF (455 kHz):
The value is chosen as a compromise between two conflicting factors:
(1) Adjacent channel selectivity and easy tracking --- IF should be low
(2) Image signal rejection --- IF should be high
Case (1):
 Lower IF needs a lower Q. If IF = 455 kHz and baseband frequency is 10 kHz, then
Q = 455/10 = 45.5 and tuned circuit for this Q can be designed easily.
If IF is large, say 10 MHz, then Q = 10 MHz / 10 kHz = 1000. the design of such a
high Q is impossible.
Hence IF should be low for better selectivity.
 Low IF makes the difference between signal and LO frequency small and as a
result, tracking becomes easy.
04/08/2023 SRMIST - ECE - SEM 5 - ADC - M2 34

IF Amplifier (contd…)
Case (2):
• The value of IF should be large for image signal rejection.
• From , we have
• If IF is kept large, the image signal will be far apart from
desired signal fc and can be easily rejected.

• In commercial AM receivers, the IF fi is kept fixed as 455

kHz in order to achieve a compromise between the
conflicting factors.
04/08/2023 SRMIST - ECE - SEM 5 - ADC - M2 35

Link

Second Detector
• Linear diode detector is used here due to simple and low cost.
• The magnitude of the receiver input voltage varies with time due to fading, or
when the receiver is tuned from one station to another having a different
signal strength. AVC eliminates the effect of these variations.
If diode D is removed, it is a simple AVC circuit. This
samples a fraction of detector output and converts it into AVC
bias voltage. The AVC bias is applied to RF and
IF stages to provide them a negative bias.

If receiver input signal , AVC bias voltage also , negative bias to RF and IF
amplifiers their gain Thus, output of receiver is maintained constant.
04/08/2023 SRMIST - ECE - SEM 5 - ADC - M2 36

Second detector (contd…)

• A forward biased diode D is introduced so that AVC is operative only if the signal
is more than the diode bias voltage. This circuit is called the delayed AVC.
• This delayed AVC bias can be further amplified by a d.c. amplifier and is known as
amplified and delayed AVC. This is very near to ideal AVC.

Audio Amplifier:
• This stage consists of an RC coupled voltage amplifier
followed by a push-pull power amplifier.
• Fidelity of the receiver is determined by the frequency
response characteristics of this stage.
• The more the bandwidth of this stage, better the fidelity.
04/08/2023 SRMIST - ECE - SEM 5 - ADC - M2 37

Superheterodyne Receiver - FM
• FM uses radio frequency ranging from 40 MHz to 1 GHz for various
applications such as FM broadcasting, TV sound transmission, Police Radio,
military systems, etc.
• Similar to AM superheterodyne receiver except the additional blocks limiter
and De-emphasis circuits.
• The FM broadcast receivers use 10.7 MHz as intermediate frequency.
• IF amplifier is responsible for sensitivity and selectivity of the receiver.
04/08/2023 SRMIST - ECE - SEM 5 - ADC - M2 38

Limiter Circuit
• As the input increases due to noise or any other interference, the bias
at common source FET amplifier increases in such a way that the
gain of the amplifier is reduced and the output voltage remains
constant. Thus, limiting action is achieved.
04/08/2023 SRMIST - ECE - SEM 5 - ADC - M2 39

De-emphasis
• The high modulating frequency terms are boosted by pre-
emphasis circuit for threshold improvement in FM
transmitters. In FM receivers, they are brought back to
original amplitude level by de-emphasis circuit.
04/08/2023 SRMIST - ECE - SEM 5 - ADC - M2 40

Sources of Noise
Definition: Noise is an error or undesired random
disturbance of a useful information signal. The noise is a
summation of unwanted or disturbing energy from natural
and sometimes man-made sources.
04/08/2023 SRMIST - ECE - SEM 5 - ADC - M2 41

Thermal Noise
•  It may also be called Johnson-Nyquist noise, Johnson noise, or Nyquist
noise.
• Thermal noise is generated as a result of thermal agitation of the charge
carriers which are typically electrons within an electrical conductor. This
thermal noise actually occurs regardless of the applied voltage because the
charge carriers vibrate as a result of the temperature. The higher the
temperature, the higher the agitation and hence the thermal noise level.
• Thermal noise, like other forms of noise are random in nature. It is not
possible to predict the waveform and therefore it is not possible to reduce the
effects by cancellation or other similar techniques.
• The mean-square value of thermal-noise voltage is given by
E2 =4RkT·Δf where,
k is Boltzmann's constant (1.38 × 10−23 Joules/Kelvin),
T is the absolute temperature in Kelvins,
Δf is the bandwidth in Hertz,
E is the root-mean-square noise voltage.
04/08/2023 SRMIST - ECE - SEM 5 - ADC - M2 42

Shot Noise
• Shot noise in electronic devices results from unavoidable random statistical fluctuations of
the electric current when the charge carriers (such as electrons) traverse a gap. If electrons
flow across a barrier, then they have discrete arrival times. Those discrete arrivals exhibit 
shot noise.
• Shot noise is similar to the noise created by rain falling on a tin roof. The flow of rain
may be relatively constant, but the individual raindrops arrive discretely.
• The RMS value of the shot noise current in is given by the Schottky formula

where Is is the shot noise current,

e is the electronic charge (1.6 x 10-19 Coulomb)
Id is the dark leakage current (Amp)
B is the bandwidth of the system (Hz)
• Vacuum tubes exhibit shot noise because the electrons randomly leave the cathode and
arrive at the anode (plate). A tube may not exhibit the full shot noise effect: the presence of a 
space charge tends to smooth out the arrival times (and thus reduce the randomness of the
current). Pentodes and screen-grid tetrodes exhibit more noise than triodes 
• Conductors and resistors typically do not exhibit shot noise because the electrons thermalize
 and move diffusively within the material; the electrons do not have discrete arrival times.
04/08/2023 SRMIST - ECE - SEM 5 - ADC - M2 43

Flicker Noise
• Flicker noise, also known as 1/f noise, is a signal or process with a 
frequency spectrum that falls off steadily into the higher frequencies, with a 
pink spectrum. It occurs in almost all electronic devices and results from a
variety of effects.
• Burst noise consists of sudden step-like transitions between two or more
discrete voltage or current levels, as high as several hundred microvolts, at
random and unpredictable times. Each shift in offset voltage or current lasts
for several milliseconds to seconds. It is also known a popcorn noise for the
popping or crackling sounds it produces in audio circuits.

• In Pink noise , each octave

(halving or
doubling in
frequency) carries an equal amount of
noise energy.
04/08/2023 SRMIST - ECE - SEM 5 - ADC - M2 44

Transit-time Noise
• If the time taken by the electrons to travel from emitter to
collector in a transistor becomes comparable to the period
of the signal being amplified, that is, at frequencies above 
VHF and beyond, the transit-time effect takes place and
noise input impedance of the transistor decreases.
• From the frequency at which this effect becomes
significant, it increases with frequency and quickly
dominates other sources of noise.
04/08/2023 SRMIST - ECE - SEM 5 - ADC - M2 45

Other Noises
• Intermodulation noise
• Caused when signals of different frequencies share the same
non-linear medium.
• Crosstalk
• Phenomenon in which a signal transmitted in one circuit or
channel of a transmission systems creates undesired
interference onto a signal in another channel.
• Interference
• Modification or disruption of a signal travelling along a medium
• Atmospheric noise
• This noise is also called static noise and it is the natural source
of disturbance caused by lightning discharge in thunderstorm
and the natural (electrical) disturbances occurring in nature.
04/08/2023 SRMIST - ECE - SEM 5 - ADC - M2 46

Other Noises
• Industrial noise
• Sources such as automobiles, aircraft, ignition electric motors and switching
gear, High voltage wires and fluorescent lamps cause industrial noise.
These noises are produced by the discharge present in all these
operations.
• Solar noise
• Noise that originates from the Sun is called solar noise. Under normal
conditions there is constant radiation from the Sun due to its high
temperature. Electrical disturbances such as corona discharges, as well as 
sunspots can produce additional noise. The intensity of solar noise varies
over time in a solar cycle.
• Cosmic noise
• Distant stars generate noise called cosmic noise. While these stars are too
far away to individually affect terrestrial communications systems, their
large number leads to appreciable collective effects. Cosmic noise has
been observed in a range from 8 MHz to 1.43 GHz.
04/08/2023 SRMIST - ECE - SEM 5 - ADC - M2 47
04/08/2023 SRMIST - ECE - SEM 5 - ADC - M2 48
04/08/2023 SRMIST - ECE - SEM 5 - ADC - M2 49
04/08/2023 SRMIST - ECE - SEM 5 - ADC - M2 50
04/08/2023 SRMIST - ECE - SEM 5 - ADC - M2 51
04/08/2023 SRMIST - ECE - SEM 5 - ADC - M2 52
04/08/2023 SRMIST - ECE - SEM 5 - ADC - M2 53

Pre-emphasis Circuit
• In high speed digital transmission, at the FM transmitter, the modulating signal is passed
through a simple high-pass filter circuit which amplifies the high frequency components
more than low-frequency components called pre-emphasis circuit.

• A time constant of 75 µs is specified where t=RC and the circuit has a cut-off frequency of
2123 Hz, i,.e., frequencies higher than this will be enhanced.
•
04/08/2023 SRMIST - ECE - SEM 5 - ADC - M2 54

Pre-emphasis (contd…)
• This increases the energy-content of high frequency
signals and become stronger than the high frequency
noise components and not masked by noise.
• This improves S/N ratio and increases fidelity and
intelligibility.
04/08/2023 SRMIST - ECE - SEM 5 - ADC - M2 55

De-emphasis
To return the frequency response to normal level, a simple
low-pass filter circuit of a time-constant of 75 µs is used at the
receiver.

It features a cutoff of 2122 Hz and causes signals above this

frequency to be attenuated at the rate of 6dB per octave.
• 6dB is of common use because it represents 2 times and 1 octave
is twice the frequency.