Anticonvulsants

Charles Nichols, Ph.D.

Department of Pharmacology and

Experimental Therapeutics

cnich1@lsuhsc.edu

MEB 5258/5214
 Definitions
• Convulsion: Sudden attack of involuntary muscular
contractions and relaxations.

• Seizure: Abnormal central nervous system electrical

activity.

• Epilepsy: A group of recurrent disorders of cerebral

function characterized by both seizures and convulsions.
 Background
• Epilepsy: Neurological disorder affecting the CNS.
– Approximately 2.5 million people in the U.S. (~1% general pop)
– Cost per patient ranges from $4,272 for persons with remission
after initial diagnosis and treatment to $138,602 for persons with
intractable and frequent seizures.

• Causes:
– Genetic (autosomal dominant genes)
– Congenital defects
– Severe head trauma
– Ischemic injury, tumor
– Drug abuse
– Unknown

http://www.med.uc.edu/neurology/images/
Basic Neuroscience Relevant to
Seizure Disorders and Epilepsy
The Brain

An extremely complex organ

made up of billions of
connections between neurons.

These connections are each

highly controlled and regulated.
 Nerve Cell Communication
• Neurons communicate between themselves using small molecules called
neurotransmitters.

• These neurotransmitters modulate and regulate the electrical activity of a given

neuron, and tell it when to fire an action potential or when not to.
- Glutamate = excitatory (tells the neuron to fire)
- GABA = inhibitory (dampens the neuron firing rate)

• The action potential is an electrical signal that travels down the axon, and is created
using sodium ions (Na+), and inhibited by potassium ions (K+).

• Usually these processes work synergistically to produce normal behavior and

activity.

• When dysfunctional, abnormal electrical activity occurs and can produce seizures.
 Sodium Ions/Channels

Potassium Ions/Channels

Action Potential

Neurotransmitters
(Glutamate, GABA)
Scalp EEG Data Acquisition
 10-second EEGs: Seizure Evolution
Normal Pre-Seizure

Seizure Post-Seizure
TYPES OF SEIZURES
 Partial (focal) Seizures
• Excessive electrical activity in one cerebral hemisphere.
-Affects only part of the body. 

• Simple Partial: Person may experience a range of

strange or unusual sensations.
– Motor
– Sensory
– Autonomic
– Key feature: preservation of consciousness.
 Partial (focal) Seizures
• Complex Partial:

– Loss of awareness at seizure onset. Person seems dazed or

confused and exhibits meaningless behaviors.

– Typically originate in frontal or temporal lobes (e.g. Temporal

lobe epilepsy)
 Generalized Seizures

• Excessive electrical activity in both cerebral

hemispheres.
• Usually originates in the thalamus or brainstem.
• Affects the whole body.
• Loss of consciousness is common.
 Generalized Seizures
• Myoclonic: Brief shock-like muscle jerks generalized or restricted to part of
one extremity.

• Atonic: Sudden loss of muscle tone.

• Tonic Seizures: sudden stiffening of the body, arms, or legs

• Clonic Seizures: rhythmic jerking movements of the arms and legs

without a tonic component

• Tonic-clonic (grand mal):

– Tonic phase followed by clonic phase

http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/images/ency/fullsize/19076.jpg
 Tonic-Clonic Seizure

Can last from one to several minutes

Therapeutic intervention = lorazepam injection
 Generalized Seizures

• Absence (petit mal): Person appears to “blank out” - “Daydreaming”

– Simple Absence (primarily effects consciousness only)
– Complex Absence
– Atypical Absence (Includes physical symptoms like eye blinking or lip movements)

• Lenox-Glastaut Syndrome.
– Atypical absence, atonic and myclonic

• Status Epilepticus: A seizure lasting longer than 30 min, or 3 seizures

without a normal period in between
– May be fatal
– Emergency intervention required
 Absence Seizure

Can last from a second to several minutes

Incidence of Seizure Types

Mayo Clinic Proceedings 1996; 71:576-568

 Seizure Facts

• Seizures are not usually life threatening.

• The brain almost always stops the seizure on its own.

• Breathing may cease for a few seconds, and the patient

may turn blue.

• People don’t feel pain during a seizure; muscles may be

sore afterward.

• Person may be “different” for a while after the seizure.

 Treatment
• Try to find a cause. (e.g. fever, head trauma, drug
abuse)
– Recurrent seizures that cannot be attributed to any cause are
seen in patients with epilepsy.

• Therapy is aimed at control

– drugs do not cure.

• The type of seizure determines the choice of drug!

• More than 80% of patients with epilepsy can have can

have their seizures controlled with medications.
 Treatment

• Monotherapy with anticonvulsant

– Increase dose gradually until seizures are controlled or adverse
effects become unacceptable.
– Multiple-drug therapy may be required.

• Achieve steady-state kinetics

• Monitor plasma drug levels
• Avoid sudden withdrawal
 Mechanisms of Action
• 3 main categories of therapeutics:

1. Inhibition of voltage-gated Na+ channels to slow neuron firing.

2. Enhancement of the inhibitory effects of the neurotransmitter GABA.

3. Inhibition of calcium channels.

There are Many Adverse Effects of Therapeutics!!!!

• CNS Effects: •GI Effects

– Drowsiness, sedation, somnolence –Dry Mouth
– Depression –Nausea
– Dizziness –Vomiting
– Slurred speech –Anorexia
– Ataxia –Diarrhea
– Nystagmus
– Diploplia •Rash
– Vertigo
•Fetal Abnormalities and
– Headache
birth defects
– Confusion
– Tremor
– Interference with cognitive functions
in learning situations
 Anti-convulsant Pharmacotherapy

• Medications are listed next with general guidelines for use.

– good first choice, second choice, etc.

• Actual use will depend more on a combination of your

experiences in the clinic and patient individuality and
response.
Na+ Channel Inhibitors
 Na+ Channel Inhibitors

• Phenytoin (Dilantin, Phenytek):

– Indications:
• First choice for partial and generalized tonic-clonic seizures
• Some efficacy in clonic, myoclonic, atonic,
• No effect on infantile spasms or absence seizures
– Drug Interactions:
• Decreases blood levels of many medications
• Increases blood levels of phenobarbital & warfarin
 Na+ Channel Inhibitors
• Phenytoin (Dilantin, Phenytek):

– Adverse Effects:
• Hirsutism & coarsening of facial features
• Acne
• Gingival hyperplasia (20-40%)
– Brush teeth >8 times per day
» A primary reason not to prescribe for children
• Decreased serum concentrations of folic acid, thyroxine, and
vitamin K with long-term use.
Phenytoin Induced Gingival Hyperplasia

17 year old boy treated with

300mg/day phenytoin for 2
years (unsupervised)

Partial recovery at 3 months

after discontinuation

Images in Clinical Medicine (Feb 2000) 342:325

 Na+ Channel Inhibitors

• Carbamzepine (Tegretol, Carbatrol):

– Indications:
• First choice for complex partial and generalized tonic-clonic
seizures.
– Contraindications:
• May exacerbate absence or myoclonic seizures.
• Blood disorders
• Liver disorders
 Na+ Channel Inhibitors
• Carbamazepine (Tegretol, Carbatrol):

– Drug Interactions:
• CBZ metabolism is affected by many drugs, and CBZ affects
the metabolism of many drugs.
– Adverse Effects:
• Mild leukopenia or hyponatremia
• Circulating concentrations of thyroid hormones may be
depressed; TSH remains normal.
 Na+ Channel Inhibitors

• Oxcarbazepine (Trileptal):
– FDA approved in 2000 for partial seizures
• Complex partial seizures
• Primary & secondarily generalized tonic-clonic seizures
• No effect on absence or myoclonic seizures

– Fewer adverse effects than CBZ, phenytoin

 Na+ Channel Inhibitors
• Valproic Acid (Valproate; Depakene, Depakote):

– Other Mechanisms of Action:

• 1) Some inhibition of T-type Ca2+ channels.
• 2) Increases GABA production and decreases GABA
metabolism.
– Indications:
• Simple or complex partial, & primary generalized tonic-clonic
• Also used for absence, myoclonic, and atonic seizures.
• Highly effective for photosensitive epilepsy and juvenile
myoclonic epilepsy.
– Contraindications:
• Liver disease
 Na+ Channel Inhibitors
• Valproic Acid (Valproate; Depakene, Depakote):

– Drug Interactions:
• Affects metabolism of many drugs through liver enzyme
inhibition
– Phenobarbital
» “Drunkenness”
– Clorazepam
» Prolonged absence seizures
 Na+ Channel Inhibitors
• Valproic Acid (Valproate; Depakene, Depakote):

– Adverse Effects:
• Weight gain (30-50%)
• Dose-related tremor
• Transient hair loss
• Polycystic ovary syndrome and menstrual disturbances
• Bone loss
• Ankle swelling
 Na+ Channel Inhibitors
• Lamotrigine (Lamictal):

– Other Mechanism of Action:

• May inhibit synaptic release of glutamate.
– Indications:
• Adjunct therapy (ages 2 & up):
– Simple & complex partial seizures
– Generalized seizures of Lennox-Gastaut Syndrome
• Monotherapy (adults):
– Simple & complex partial seizures
– Contraindications:
• May make myoclonic seizures worse.  
 Na+ Channel Inhibitors
• Lamotrigine (Lamictal):

– Adverse Effects:
• Rash (10%)
– Rare progression to serious systemic illness
• Increased alertness
 Na+ Channel Inhibitors
• Topiramate (Topamax):

– Other Mechanism of Action:

• Enhances post-synaptic GABAA receptor currents.
• Kainate receptor antagonist (blocks a certain type of
glutamate channel)
– Indications:
• Adjunct therapy for partial and primary generalized tonic-
clonic seizures in adults and children over 2.
• Decreases tonic and atonic seizures in children with Lennox-
Gastaut syndrome.
– Contraindications:
• History of kidney stones
 Na+ Channel Inhibitors
• Topiramate (Topamax):

– Drug Interactions:
• CBZ, phenytoin, phenobarbital, & primidone decrease blood
levels
– Adverse Effects:
• Nervousness & paresthesias
• Psychomotor slowing, word-finding difficulty, impaired
concentration, interference with memory
• Weight loss & anorexia
• Metabolic acidosis
 Na+ Channel Inhibitors
• Zonisamide (Zonegran):

– Other Mechanism of Action:

• Inhibits T-type Ca2+ currents.
• Binds to GABA receptors.
• Facilitates dopaminergic and serotonergic
neurotransmission.
 Na+ Channel Inhibitors

• Zonisamide (Zonegran):

– Indications:
• Approved for adjunct treatment of partial seizures in adults.
• Appears to have a broad spectrum:
– Myoclonic seizures
– Infantile spasms
– Generalized & atypical absence seizures
– Lennox-Gastaut Syndrome
– Drug Interactions:
• Phenytoin and carbamazepine decrease its half-life by half.
 Na+ Channel Inhibitors
• Zomisamide (Zonegran):

– Adverse Effects:
• Weight loss
• Abnormal thinking
• Nervousness
• Agitation/irritability
• Usually well tolerated
 Na+ Channel Inhibitors
• Lidocaine: Only when other drugs are refractory for
status epilepticus.
Enhancement of GABA Inhibition
 Enhancement of GABA Inhibition

• Barbiturate drugs: Phenobarbital (Luminal) &

Primidone (Mysoline):

– Mechanism of Action:
• Increases the duration of GABAA-activated Cl- channel
opening.
 Enhancement of GABA Inhibition

• Phenobarbital (Luminal):

– Indications:
• Second choice for partial and generalized tonic-clonic
seizures.
• Rapid absorption has made it a common choice for seizures in
infants, but adverse cognitive effects cause it to be used less
in older children and adults.
• Status epilepticus
– Contraindications:
• Absence Seizures
 Enhancement of GABA Inhibition

• Primidone (Mysoline):

– Indications:
• Adjuvant or monotherapy for partial and generalized tonic-
clonic seizures
• May control refractory generalized tonic-clonic seizures
– Contraindications:
• History of porphyria
 Enhancement of GABA Inhibition
• Phenobarbital (Luminal) & Primidone (Mysoline):

– Drug Interactions:
• Other CNS depressants
• Increased metabolism of vitamin D and K
• Phenytoin increases the conversion of primidone to
phenobarbital.
 Enhancement of GABA Inhibition
• Phenobarbital (Luminal) & Primidone (Mysoline):

– Adverse Effects:
• Agitation and confusion in the elderly.
• Worsening of pre-existing hyperactivity and aggressiveness
in children
• Sexual side effects
• Physical dependence
 Enhancement of GABA Inhibition

• Benzodiazepine drugs:

– Diazepam (Valium), lorazepam (Ativan), clonazepam (Klonopin),

clorazepate (Transxene-SD)

– Mechanism of Action:
• Increases the frequency of GABAA-activated Cl- channel
opening.
 Enhancement of GABA Inhibition
• Benzodiazepine drugs:

– Indications:
• Only clonazepam & clorazepate approved for long-term
treatment.
• Clorazepate
– In combination for partial seizures
• Clonazepam
– Lennox-Gastaut Syndrome, myoclonic, atonic, and
absence seizures
– Tolerance develops after about 6 months
 Enhancement of GABA Inhibition
• Benzodiazepine drugs:

– Indications:
• Diazepam and lorazepam are used in treatment of status
epileticus.
– Diazepam is painful to inject; lorazepam is more
commonly used in acute treatment.
• Diazepam
– Intermittent use for control of seizure clusters
– Diazepam frequently combined with phenytoin.
 Enhancement of GABA Inhibition
• Benzodiazepine drugs:

– Contraindications:
• Diazepam in children under 9
• Narrow angle glaucoma
– Adverse Effects:
• Hypotonia, Dysarthria
• Muscle in-coordination (clonazepam)
• Behavioral disturbances (especially in children)
– Aggression, Hyperactivity, Irritability and Difficulty
concentrating
 Enhancement of GABA Inhibition
• Tiagabine (Gabitril):

– Mechanism of Action:
• Inhibition of GABA transporter (GAT-1) – reduces reuptake
of GABA by neurons and glial cells.
– Indications:
• Approved in 1998 as an adjunct therapy for partial seizures
in patients at least 12 years old.
– Contraindications:
• Absence seizures
 Enhancement of GABA Inhibition
• Tiagabine (Gabitril):

– Interactions:
• Blood levels decreased by CBZ, phenytoin, phenobarbital, &
primidone

– Adverse Effects:
• Asthenia
• Abdominal pain
Calcium Channel Blockers
 Voltage-Gated Ca2+ Channel T Currents

• Ethosuximide (Zarontin):

– Mechanism of Action:
• Reduces low threshold Ca2+currents (T currents) in
the thalamic neurons.
• Half-life is ~60 hr in adults; ~30hr in children.
– Indications:
• First line for absence seizures
– Contraindications:
• May exacerbate partial & tonic-clonic seizures
 Voltage-Gated Ca2+ Channel T Currents

• Ethosuximide (Zarontin):
– Adverse Effects:
• Psychotic behavior
• Blood dyscrasias
• Persistent headaches
• Anorexia
• Hiccups
• Lupus-like syndromes

– Toxicity:
• parkinson-like symptoms
• photophobia
 Blockade of Calcium Channels ()

• Gabapentin (Neurontin):

– Mechanism of Action:
• Originally designed to be a centrally acting GABA agonist.
• Selective inhibition of v-g Ca2+ channels containing the
α2δ1 subunit.

– Indications:
• adjunct therapy in adults and children with partial &
secondarily generalized seizures.
• Also effective as monotherapy.
Blockade of Calcium Channels ()

• Gabapentin (Neurontin):

– Contraindications:
• Can exacerbate myoclonic & absence seizures.
– Adverse Effects:
• Weight Gain (5%) with ankle edema
• Irritability
• Behavioral problems in children (6%)
• Has been associated with movement disorders.
Blockade of Calcium Channels ()
• Pregabalin (Lyrica):

– Mechanism of Action:
• Same as gabapentin
– Indications:
• Approved in 2005
• Adjunct therapy for partial & secondarily generalized
seizures
– Contraindications:
• No effect on absence, myoclonic, or primary generalized
tonic-clonic seizures
– Other uses:
• Prescribed for neuropathic pain, fibromyalgia
 Other/Unknown MOA

• Levetiracetam (Keppra):

– Mechanism of Action:
• Not exactly known
• Binding affinity to Synaptic Vesicle Protein 2A correlates
with its anticonvulsant activity.
• Also blocks calcium channel N-currents, increases
intracellular Ca2+ levels, modulates GABA channel currents
– Indications:
• Approved in 1999 as an adjunct therapy for adults with
partial seizures.
• Some patients have success with monotherapy
 Other/Unknown MOA

• Levetiracetam (Keppra):

– Contraindications:
• Renal dysfunction

– Adverse Effects:
• Asthenia
• Infection
• Behavioral problems in children
 Other/Unknown MOA
• Magnesium chloride: Used for magnesium deficiency
seizures.
• Paraldehyde: Alcohol withdrawal seizures.
Summary
 Na+ Channel Drugs

• Phenytoin (Dilantin, Phenytek)

• Cabamazepine (Tegretol, Carbatrol)
• Valproic Acid (Depakene, Depakote)
• Lamotrigine (Lamictal)
• Topiramate (Topamax)
• Zonisamide (Zonegran)
• Lidocaine
 GABA Drugs
• Barbiturates: •Tiagabine (Gabitril)
– Phenobarbital (Luminal)
•Valproic Acid (Depakene, Depakote)
– Pimidone (Mysoline)
• Benzodiazepines: •Topiramate (Topamax)
– Diazepam (Valium)
•Zonisamide (Zonegran)
– Lorazepam (Ativan)
– Clonazepam (Klonopin)
– Clorazepate (Tranxene-SD)
 Ca2+ Channel Drugs
• Ethosuximide (Zarontin)

• Valproic Acid (Depakene, Depakote)

• Zonisamide (Zonegran)
• Gabapentin (Neurontin)
• Pregabalin (Lyrica)
• Levetiracetam (Keppra)
Other/Unknown MOA

• Magnesium chloride
• Paraldehyde
 Primary Generalized Tonic-Clonic
(Grand Mal) Seizures

• Drugs of Choice: •Alternatives

• Phenytoin •Lamotrigine
• Carbamazepine •Topiramate
• Oxcarbazepine •Zonisamide
• Valproate •Levetiracetam
•Primidone
•Phenobarbital
•Diazepam
 Partial, Including Secondarily
Generalized Seizures

• Drugs of Choice: •Alternatives

• Phenytoin •Lamotrigine
• Carbamazepine •Topiramate
• Oxcarbazepine •Zonisamide
• Valproate •Levetiracetam
•Primidone
•Phenobarbital
•Gabapentin
•Pregabalin
•Tiagabine
 Absence (Petit Mal)

• Drugs of Choice: •Alternatives

• Ethosuximide •Clonazepam
• Valproate •Zonisamide
Atypical Absence, Myoclonic, Atonic Seizures

• Drug of Choice: •Alternatives

• Valproate •Clonazepam
•Topiramate
•Zonisamide
•Levetiracetam