Chapter 2

Communications Networks
 Introduction

• Look at:
– Telephony Networks (2.2)
– OSI Reference Model(2.3)
– The Internet (2.4)
– Asynchronous Transfer Mode Networks
(2.5)
– Networking Components (2.6)
– Network Topologies(2.7)
 Introduction
• A network is a group of computers that
can communicate with each other so
they can share information
• When computers can communicate with
each other they can share resources
• When a server provides a resource for
a client to access, this is referred to as
a shared resource
 Telephony Networks

• IP telephony networks make better use

of available bandwidth
• VoIP network carries voice traffic
cheaper than a switched circuit
telephone network
 Telephony Networks

• In a PSTN, a dedicated end-to-end

circuit is allocated for each call
• In a VoIP network, data is much more
compressed and carried in packets
 The OSI Model

• An architecture that allows the devices

of different manufacturers to work
together to communicate with different
operating systems
• This architecture determines how
hardware, software, topologies and
protocols exist on the network and how
they operate
 The OSI Model

• Physical layer: Layer 1 of the OSI

reference model
- Defines mechanical, functional, procedural
and electrical aspects of networking
- Includes connectors, circuits, voltage levels
and grounding
 The OSI Model

• Data Link layer: Layer 2 of the OSI

reference model
– This layer packages raw bits from the
Physical layer into logical, structured data
packets
 The OSI Model

• Network layer: Layer 3 of the OSI

reference model
– Provides connectivity and path selection
between two systems
– Layer at which routing occurs
 The OSI Model

• Transport layer: Layer 4 of the OSI

reference model
– Helps provide a virtual error-free, point to
point connection so that communication
between two hosts will arrive un-corrupted
and in the correct order
 The OSI Model

• Session layer: Layer 5 of the OSI

reference model
– Allows two applications on different
computers to establish dialog control
– Regulates which side transmits
– Determines the time and length of the
transmission
 The OSI Model

• Presentation layer: Layer 6 of the OSI

reference model
– Translates data from the Application layer
into an intermediary format
– Provides services such as data encryption,
and compresses data
 The OSI Model

• Application layer: Layer 7 of the OSI

reference model
– Provides services to application processes
to ensure that effective communication with
other application programs is possible
 The Internet

• The Internet was originally called

ARPANET
– Developed by the Department of Defense
to provide a way to connect networks
• Internet is a network of interconnected,
yet independent networks
• The language of the Internet is TCP/IP
 Asynchronous Transfer Mode
(ATM) Networks
• ATM uses connection-oriented switches
to permit senders and receivers to
communicate by establishing a
dedicated circuit
– Data travels in fixed 53-byte cells
– Five bytes are used for header information
and 48 bytes are used for data
– Data transfer rate can reach up to 9,953
Mbps
 Networking Components

• Baseband uses a digital transmission

pulse at a single fixed frequency
– Entire bandwidth of the cable is used to
transmit one data signal
– Limits any cable strand to either half
duplex or full duplex
 Networking Components

• Broadband uses analog transmission

over a continuous range of values
– Travels one way only in optical waves
– Necessary to have two channels, one for
receiving and one for sending data
– More than one transmission can operate
on a single cable
 Networking Components

• Media: Cables and Wireless

– Coaxial cable was the first type of cable
used to network computers
– Coaxial cables are made of a thick copper
core with an outer metallic shield used to
reduce external interference
– Twisted pair cable comes in seven different
categories.
 Networking Components

• Media: Cables and Wireless

– Twisted-pair cabling is either unshielded
(UTP) or shielded (STP)
– Fiber was designed for transmissions at
higher speeds over longer distances
– Fiber uses light pulses for signal
transmission, making it immune to RFI,
EMI, and eavesdropping
 Networking Components
• Media: Cables and Wireless
– Wireless network refers to technology that
allows two or more computers to
communicate using standard network
protocols, but without network cabling
– Wireless networking hardware requires the
use of technology that deals with data
transmission over radio frequencies
 Networking Components

• Media: Cables and Wireless

– Most widely used wireless standard is the
IEEE 802.11 standard
– The IEEE standards for wireless are
802.11a and 802.11b
 Networking Components

• A hub is a multiport repeater that

retransmits a signal on all ports
– Operates at Layer 1 of the OSI model
– Can connect segments or a network
– Cannot segment a network
 Networking Components

• A bridge can connect two different types

of topologies
– Does not understand anything above the
Data Link layer
– Moves data more rapidly
– Takes longer to transmit because it
analyzes each packet
 Networking Components

• Switches operate at the Data Link layer

of the OSI model
– Packet forwarding decisions are based on
MAC addresses
– Determines from a physical address (MAC
address) which device a packet is intended
for and switches it out toward that device
 Networking Components

• Routers operate at the Network layer of

the OSI model
– Forwards information to its destination on
the network or the Internet
– Routers maintain tables that are checked
each time a packet needs to be redirected
from one interface to another
 Networking Topologies
• All devices on the network compete for
access on a single shared piece of media
• Only one device can transmit or talk on the
media at a time while all others must listen
• When more than one device simultaneously
tries to talk, there is competition for access to
the media resulting in a collision of
information
 Networking Topologies

• Bus topology:
– Consists of computers connected by a
single cable called a backbone
– All the computers share in its capacity
– Simplest method for connecting computers
– 10Base2 or10Base5 cable is used
– The more devices, the slower the network
 Networking Topologies
• Ring topology:
– Consists of each computer, connects
directly to the next one in line, forming a
circle
– Data travels in a clockwise direction and
each machine accepts the information
intended for it
– Passes on the information that is for other
machines
 Networking Topologies

• Ring topology:
– Uses a token, which is actually a small
packet, to send information
– Every computer in the ring is responsible
for either passing the token or creating a
new one  
 Networking Topologies

• Peer-to-peer network:
– All machines are equal
– Each can act as a server and a client
– There is no central control over shared
resources
– Individual users decide what to share and
with whom
– Less secure than a server based network
 Networking Topologies
• Star topology:
– Computers are connected to a centralized
hub by a cable segment
– Require more cabling than ring or bus
topologies
– One computer connection goes down, it
does not affect the rest of the network
– Much easier to move computers around or
connect them to other networks
 Networking Topologies

• Mesh topology:
– All devices are connected to each other
more than once to create fault tolerance
– A single device or cable failure will not
affect the performance
– More expensive
– Requires more hardware and cabling
 Networking Topologies

• Star bus topology:

– Computers are connected to hubs in a star
formation and then the hubs are connected
via bus topology
– More expensive to implement
– Longer distances can be covered
– Networks can more easily be isolated
 Networking Topologies

• Star ring topology:

– Data is sent in a circular motion around the
star
– Eliminates the single point of failure that
happens in a ring topology
– Uses token passing data transmission with
the physical layout of a star