FLIGHT INSTRUMENTS

3 R D P R E S E N TAT I O N | 1 9 N O V E M B E R 2 0 1 8
 FLIGHT INSTRUMENTS

Flight instruments are the instruments in the

cockpit of an aircraft that provide the pilot with
information about the flight situation of that
aircraft, such as altitude, airspeed and direction.
They improve safety by allowing the pilot to fly
the aircraft in level flight, and make turns,
without a reference outside the aircraft such as
the horizon.
3 GROUPS OF FLIGHT INSTRUMENT

• Pitot – Static System

• Compass System

• Gyroscopic instruments
 PITOT – STATIC SYSTEM

A pitot-static system is a system of pressure-

sensitive instruments that is most often used in
aviation to determine an aircraft's airspeed, 
Mach number, altitude, and altitude trend. A
pitot-static system generally consists of a pitot
tube, a static port, and the pitot-static
instruments.
 PITOT – STATIC SYSTEM

Other instruments that might be connected are 

air data computers, flight data recorders, 
altitude encoders, cabin pressurization controllers, and
various airspeed switches. Errors in pitot-static system
readings can be extremely dangerous as the
information obtained from the pitot static system, such
as altitude, is potentially safety-critical. Several
commercial airline disasters have been traced to a
failure of the pitot-static system
DIAGRAM OF A PITOT-STATIC SYSTEM INCLUDING THE
PITOT TUBE, PITOT-STATIC INSTRUMENTS AND STATIC
PORT
 PITOT-STATIC PRESSURE

The pitot-static system of instruments uses the

principle of air pressure gradient. It works by
measuring pressures or pressure differences and using
these values to assess the speed and altitude. These
pressures can be measured either from the static port
(static pressure) or the pitot tube (pitot pressure). The
static pressure is used in all measurements, while the
pitot pressure is used only to determine airspeed.
PITOT TUBE

• also known as pitot probe, is a 

flow measurement device used to
measure fluid flow velocity.

• The pitot tube was invented by the 

French engineer Henri Pitot in the
early 18th century and was modified
to its modern form in the mid-19th
century by French scientist 
Henry Darcy. It is widely used to
determine

• the airspeed of an aircraft, water

speed of a boat, and to measure
liquid, air and gas flow velocities in
certain industrial applications.
 PITOT PRESSURE

• The pitot pressure is obtained from the pitot tube

• Is the measure of ram air pressure (the air pressure created by

vehicle)

• The pitot tube is most often located on the wing or front section of
an aircraft, facing forward, where its opening is exposed to the 
relative wind. By situating the pitot tube in such a location, the ram
air pressure is more accurately measured since it will be less
distorted by the aircraft's structure. When airspeed increases, the
ram air pressure is increased, which can be translated by the 
airspeed indicator
 STATIC PRESSURE

• The static pressure is obtained through a static port.

• The static port is most often a flush-mounted hole on the 

fuselage of an aircraft, and is located where it can access the
air flow in a relatively undisturbed area.

• A pitot-static tube effectively integrates the static ports into the

pitot probe. It incorporates a second coaxial tube (or tubes)
with pressure sampling holes on the sides of the probe, outside
the direct airflow, to measure the static pressure. When the
aircraft climbs, static pressure will decrease.
 PITOT STATIC INSTRUMENT

• The pitot-static system obtains pressures for interpretation by

the pitot-static instruments. 

• mechanical instruments, many modern aircraft use an 

air data computer (ADC) to calculate airspeed, rate of climb,
altitude and Mach number.

• There are also "standby instruments", which are back-up

pneumatic instruments employed in the case of problems with
the primary instruments.
 AIRSPEED INDICATOR

• The airspeed indicator is connected to both the pitot

and static pressure sources. The difference between
the pitot pressure and the static pressure is called
dynamic pressure. The greater the dynamic pressure,
the higher the airspeed reported. A traditional
mechanical airspeed indicator contains a 
pressure diaphragm that is connected to the pitot tube.
• The case around the diaphragm is airtight
 and is vented to the static port. The
higher the speed, the higher the ram
pressure, the more pressure exerted on
the diaphragm, and the larger the needle
movement through the mechanical
linkage.
 AIRSPEED INDICATOR DIAGRAM SHOWING
PRESSURE SOURCES FROM BOTH THE PITOT TUBE
AND STATIC PORT
 ALTIMETER

The pressure altimeter, also known as the

barometric altimeter, is used to determine
changes in air pressure that occur as the
aircraft's altitude changes. Pressure altimeters
must be calibrated prior to flight to register the
pressure as an altitude above sea level. The
instrument case of the altimeter is airtight and
has a vent to the static port.
Inside the instrument, there is a sealed 
aneroid barometer. As pressure in the case
decreases, the internal barometer expands,
which is mechanically translated into a
determination of altitude. The reverse is true
when descending from higher to lower altitudes.
DIAGRAM OF AN ALTIMETER
 VERTICAL SPEED INDICATOR

• The variometer, also known as the vertical speed

indicator (VSI) or the vertical velocity indicator
(VVI), is the pitot-static instrument used to
determine whether or not an aircraft is flying in
level flight. The vertical speed specifically shows
the rate of climb or the rate of descent, which is
measured in feet per minute or meters per second.
A VERTICAL SPEED INDICATOR
 PITOT-STATIC ERRORS

There are several situations that can affect the

accuracy of the pitot-static instruments. Some of
these involve failures of the pitot-static system
itself—which may be classified as "system
malfunctions"—while others are the result of
faulty instrument placement or other
environmental factors—which may be classified
as "inherent errors".
 SYSTEM MALFUNCTIONS

• Blocked pitot tube

A blocked pitot tube is a pitot-static problem that will only affect

airspeed indicators.

For this reason, aviation regulatory agencies such as the U.S. 

Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) recommend that the
pitot tube be checked for obstructions prior to any flight.[To
prevent icing, many pitot tubes are equipped with a heating
element
• Blocked static port

A blocked static port is a more serious situation because it

affects all pitot-static instruments. One of the most common
causes of a blocked static port is airframe icing. A blocked static
port will cause the altimeter to freeze at a constant value, the
altitude at which the static port became blocked. The vertical
speed indicator will read zero and will not change at all, even if
vertical speed increases or decreases. 
The airspeed indicator will reverse the error that occurs
with a clogged pitot tube and cause the airspeed to be
read less than it actually is as the aircraft climbs. When
the aircraft is descending, the airspeed will be over-
reported. In most aircraft with unpressurized cabins, an
alternative static source is available and can be selected
from within the cockpit.
• Inherent errors

Inherent errors may fall into several categories, each

affecting different instruments. Density errors affect
instruments metering airspeed and altitude. This type
of error is caused by variations of pressure and
temperature in the atmosphere.
• Inherent errors
• A compressibility error can arise because the impact pressure will
cause the air to compress in the pitot tube. 
•  Hysteresis is an error that is caused by mechanical properties of
the aneroid capsules located within the instruments.
• Reversal errors are caused by a false static pressure reading. This
false reading may be caused by abnormally large changes in an
aircraft's pitch. A large change in pitch will cause a momentary
showing of movement in the opposite direction. Reversal errors
primarily affect altimeters and vertical speed indicators.
• Position errors

Another class of inherent errors is that of position error

. A position error is produced by the aircraft's static
pressure being different from the air pressure remote
from the aircraft. This error is caused by the air flowing
past the static port at a speed different from the
aircraft's true airspeed. Position errors may provide
positive or negative errors, depending on one of several
factors.
 LAG ERRORS

Lag errors are caused by the fact that any changes in

the static or dynamic pressure outside the aircraft
require a finite amount of time to make their way down
the tubing and affect the gauges. This type of error
depends on the length and diameter of the tubing as
well as the volume inside the gauges. Lag error is only
significant around the time when the airspeed or
altitude are changing. It is not a concern for steady
level flight.