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Chapter 2
Psychology’s Scientific Method

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 Chapter Preview
• Scientific Method.
• Types of Research.
• Samples and Settings.
• Analyzing and Interpreting Data.
• Ethics.
• Thinking Critically.
• Health and Wellness.

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 Scientific Method 1

Science is a method.
• It’s not what you study but how you study it.

Using the scientific method is what makes psychology

a science.

Psychologists use the scientific method to gain

knowledge about mind and behavior.

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 Scientific Method 2

Science is a method.

Scientists propose theories to explain the world.

• A theory is a system of ideas that attempts to explain
observations and make predictions about future
observations.

Theories provide a basis for research studies.

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 Scientific Method 3

1. Observe
2. Hypothesize
3. Test
4. Draw conclusions
5. Evaluate theory

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 Scientific Method 4

Step 1 - Observe
Observe a phenomenon
• Observe with curiosity and critical thinking—why is
it the way it is?
• Formulate or challenge a theory to explain
observations.

Step 2 - Hypothesize
Formulate hypotheses and predictions
• Hypothesis—an educated guess derived from a
theory.
• Can be tested.
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 Scientific Method 5

Step 3 - Test
Test hypothesis through empirical research.
Variable—anything that can change.
• operational definition—how variable will be
measured.
Data analysis—crunching numbers
mathematically.

Step 4 - Draw conclusions

• Do the data support the hypothesis?

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 Scientific Method 6

Step 5 – Evaluate theory

Evaluation by the scientific community
• Ongoing process.
• Replication.
• Reliability.
• Meta-analysis.

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 Descriptive Research 1

Goal: Describing a Phenomenon

• Observation.
• Interviews and surveys.
• Case studies.

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 Descriptive Research 2

Descriptive research does not answer questions about

why things are the way they are.

It can, however, explore intriguing topics.

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 Correlational Research
Goal: Identify Relationships
• correlation coefficient: r
−1.00 ≤ r ≤ 1.00.
• strength of relationship.
• direction of relationship.

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 Correlation Coefficients

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 Scatter Plots 1

Positive Correlation
The longer the lecture, the more yawns

Factors vary in same direction

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 Scatter Plots 2

Negative Correlation
The longer the lecture, the lower student attentiveness

Factors vary in opposite direction

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 Correlation and Causation 1

Correlation does not equal causation.

Why is parental harshness correlated with child rebellion?
1. Harsh parents could drive their kids to rebellion.
2. Rebellious kids could drive their parents to harshness.
3. In stressed-out families, both parents and kids could be
at their worst.
4. Ornery families could be genetically disposed to such
behavior.
5. Other explanations?
• Any combination of the above may be true or false.
• A correlation does not settle why behavior occurs.
• Third variable problem (consider stress and genetics
above).
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 Correlation and Causation 2

Correlation does not equal causation.

Why is happy mood correlated with sociability?
1. Being with others could lift our spirits.
2. Happy people may seek out company.
3. Demands of working alone might be oppressive.
4. Neurotransmitters that underlie happiness also may
promote sociability.
5. Other explanations?
• Any combination of above may be true or false.
• A correlation does not settle why behavior occurs.

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 Longitudinal Designs
• A type of correlational research.

• Measuring variables in multiple waves over time.

• Can suggest potential causal relationships.

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 Big Data
• Use of large, naturally occurring sources of data
(public records, online tracking).

• Represents actual behavior and objective events.

• Could be more accurate than self-report.

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 Experimental Research 1

Goal: Determine Causation

Variables.
• Independent variable—variable that is manipulated.
• Dependent variable—variable that is measured.

Groups.
• Experimental group—exposed to manipulation of
independent variable.
• Control group—treated equally, except no manipulation.
• Random assignment to groups.
• Is there a difference between groups?
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 Experimental Research 2

Goal: Determine Causation

Experiments are one of the few research designs that
allow you to directly test why something happens, that
is, to test for cause and effect.

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 Validity
External Validity.
• Do results generalize to the real world?

Internal Validity.
• Are dependent variable changes the result of
independent variable manipulation?
• Possible bias? Logical errors?

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 Bias and Expectations
• Experimenter Bias.
• Demand Characteristics.
• Research Participant Bias.
• Placebo Effect.
• Solution: Double-Blind Experiment.

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 Applying Different Research Methods
to Same Phenomenon
Example: Do we judge attractive strangers as
more honest?

Possible Research Methods

• observation.
• survey and interview.
• case studies.
• correlational research.
• experimental research.

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 Research Samples
Population
• Entire group about whom conclusion is to be
drawn.
Sample
• Portion of population actually observed for the
study.
Random Sample
• Each individual has equal chance of being
selected.
• Improves chances that the sample represents the
population/minimize bias.
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 Research Settings
“Artificial” World—Laboratory Setting
• controlled setting.
“Real” World—Natural Setting
• naturalistic observation.
What are the advantages and disadvantages of each
setting?

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 Analyzing and Interpreting Data 1

Statistics.
• mathematical methods used to report data.
Descriptive Statistics.
• describe/summarize.
Measures of Central Tendency.
• mean.
• median.
• mode.
Measures of Dispersion.
• range.
• standard deviation.
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 Analyzing and Interpreting Data 2

Mean
average score
N=7
Total = 63
Mean = 63 ÷ 7 = 9

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 Analyzing and Interpreting Data 3

Median
midpoint
half above, half below
namely, 10

Mode
most frequent score
namely, 0

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 Analyzing and Interpreting Data 4

Range distance from lowest to

highest score
20 − 0 = 20

Standard deviation square

root of average squared
deviation from mean
namely, 9.147

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 Analyzing and Interpreting Data 5

Statistics
• mathematical methods used to report data.

Inferential
• draw conclusions.

• bridge between sample and population.

• does data confirm the hypothesis?

• statistical significance.

• α = .05 (confidence level).

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 Research Ethics 1

• Research participants have rights!

• Risks to participants must be balanced against scientific

merit of the study.

• Researchers have a responsibility to protect participants

from physical and mental harm.

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 Research Ethics 2

APA Ethics Guidelines.

• informed consent.
• confidentiality.
• debriefing.
• deception.
Institutional Review Board (IRB).

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 Animal Research in Psychology
Animal research has benefited humans.
Nonhuman animals used by 5 percent of
researchers.
Rats and mice used 90 percent of time.
Animals cannot give consent.
Weigh benefits versus harm to animal.
Standards of care in animal research:
• housing.
• feeding.
• psychological and physical well-being.

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 A Wise Consumer...is skeptical yet
open-minded!
Cautions
Avoid overgeneralizing results.
Exercise caution in applying group trends to
individuals.
Look for converging evidence.
Correlation does not equal causation!
Consider the source.
• Especially social media posts!

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 Health and Wellness
• Observation—survivors of spousal
suicide were more likely to get sick
than those whose spouses died
from accidents.
• Hypothesis—those who write about
trauma have better physical health.
• Test—subjects wrote either about
trauma or uninteresting topic.
• Conclusion—trauma writing group
had better physical health.
• Evaluation—expressive writing can
have health benefits.

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 Chapter Review
• Explain the scientific method.
• Describe the three types of research that are used in
psychology and common research settings.
• Explain research samples and settings.
• Distinguish between descriptive statistics and
inferential statistics.
• Describe some research challenges that involve
ethics.
• Explain the need to think critically about psychological
research.
• Describe scientific studies on health and wellness and
their findings.
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