Chapter 7

Radiobiology and
Radiation protection
Contents
 Biological effects of IR
 Factors to minimize radiation dose to
patients, staff members, and the public
 Genetic and somatic effect of radiation
 Principles of radiation protection
 Patient and operator protection
 Radiobiology
 Is the study of effects of radiation on living
systems
 Radiation acts on living systems through direct

and indirect effects

 When the energy of photon or secondary electron

ionizes biologic macromolecules, the effect is

termed direct
 The photon may be absorbed by water in an

organism, ionizing the water molecules.

 The resulting ions form free radicals (radiolysis of

water) that in turn interact with and produce

changes in the biologic molecules
 This series of events is termed indirect
Radiation interaction with tissue
 The use of ionizing Radiation for
diagnostic imaging requires careful
thought and handling so that
maximum benefit can be obtained
for the minimum dose/optimization/

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1.  -particle
◦ They are easily stopped by the tissue
◦ Can scarcely penetrate the dead outer
layer of the skin
◦ Ingestion is major concern either
swallowing, inhalation or as a result of
wound contamination
◦ Cause major radiation damage in the
tissue over small range since all their
energy is deposited in a small tissue
volume

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2. -particle
 They penetrate only a cm of tissue
 High energy -particle has a more extensive

pathway and produce bremsstralung

radiation which can be additional hazard

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3. -photon
 Can pass easily through tissue
 Can create a small number of ionizing events
 X-ray photons are similar with gamma but

generally have lower energies so are attuned

more easily

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Radiation - We live with
 Natural Radiation: Cosmic rays, radiation
within our body, in food we eat, water we
drink, house we live in, lawn, building
material etc.
 Normally 1-3 mSv/year
 In areas of high background, 3-13 mSv/year

Radiation
Can kill
We live with
4000 mSv
1-3 mSv
Radiological Physics 08/31/2023 9
 Radiation - We live with
Food Radioactive levels (Bq/kg)
Daily intake
Ra-226 Th-228 Pb-210 K-40
(g/d)
Rice 150 0.126 0.267 0.133 62.4
Wheat 270 0.296 0.270 0.133 142.2
Pulses 60 0.233 0.093 0.115 397.0
Other
70 0.126 0.167 -- 135.2
Vegetables
Leafy
15 0.267 0.326 -- 89.1
Vegetables
Milk 90 -- -- -- 38.1
Composite
1370 0.067 0.089 0.063 65.0
Diet

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What can radiation do?
 Death
 Cancer
 Skin Burns
 Cataract
 Infertility
 Genetic effects

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Linear energy transfer (LET)
 Is the measure of the density of ionizing
events along the x-ray path
 Is expressed as the quantity of energy (in
Kev) deposited per m of tissue
 Particulate radiation have higher LET value
since they cause more ionizing events
than other EMR.
 Since high LET radiation is more damaging
to tissues this radiation is used for
radiation therapy

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Systems of radiation protection
 Justification of practices

 Optimization of protection

 (Limitation of doses)

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A. Justification of a practice
 Justification means that any exposure
produces sufficient benefit to offset the
radiation harm that it might cause.
 Thus, if the exposure has not any benefit

it is not justified.

Radiological Physics 08/31/2023 14

Cont..
 From the radiation safety viewpoint , some
practices are not justified.
Example:
-practices involving food, beverage,
cosmetics or other commodity or product
intended for ingestion and inhalation

-Practices involving the use of radioactive

substances in commodities or products such
as toys, personal jewelry or adornments.

Radiological Physics 08/31/2023 15

 B. Optimization of protection
 Optimization includes the criterion: doses
should be “as low as reasonably
achievable(ALARA)”, economic and social
factors being taken into account”
 Optimization means that minimum risk and

maximum benefits should be achieved,

economic and social factors being taken into
account.

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C. Limitation of doses
 The dose should be kept below the
threshold level to prevent
- Deterministic effects
- Stochastic effects
 The exposure of any individual (workers)
caused by the combination of all relevant
practices should be limited

Radiological Physics 08/31/2023 17

 Limitation of doses
 The normal exposure of individuals shall
be restricted so that neither the total
effective dose nor the total equivalent
dose to relevant organs or tissues, caused
by the possible combination of exposures
from authorized practices, exceeds any
relevant dose limit, except in special
circumstances

Radiological Physics 08/31/2023 18

 Dose limits (occupational exposure)
 The occupational exposure of any worker should be controlled so that
the following limits be not exceeded:

Application Occupational dose limit

20 mSv per year, averaged over
Effective dose defined periods of 5 years
50 mSv in any single year
Annual equivalent dose in:
The lens of the eye 150 mSv
The skin 500 mSv
The hands and feet 500 mSv

Radiological Physics 08/31/2023 19

 Dose limits (public)

Application Public dose limit

Effective dose 1 mSv in a year (*)
Annual equivalent dose in:
The lens of the eye 15 mSv
The skin 50 mSv

(*) In special circumstances, an effective dose of up to 5 mSv in a

single year provided that the average dose over five consecutive
years does not exceed 1 mSv per year.

Radiological Physics 08/31/2023 20

 Not considered for dose limits
Some cases are not considered for dose
limits, although they may increase the
effective dose:
◦ Natural background radiation
 Origin: cosmic radiation and natural radioactive
elements in the environment (2-3 mSv/year)
◦ Radiation received as consequence of medical
exposure
 It may represent an increment of dose > than
natural radiation, but it is not taken into
consideration for dose limits.

Radiological Physics 08/31/2023 21

 Radiology

Developments of regulations and safety guidelines

The following is a comparison of the risks of some medical exams compared with other
typical activities of our society:

Effective Risk of Eq. to Number of Equivalent to Number

Procedure Dose Fatal Cigarettes of Highway Miles
(mSv) Cancer Smoked Driven

Chest
3.2 x 10-2 1.3 x 10-6 9 23
Radiograph

Skull Exam 1.5 x 10-1 6 x 10-6 44 104

Bone Scan 4.4 1.8 x 10-4 1300 3200

(Radiobiology for the Radiologist, 4th ed.; Eric Hall 1994, J.B. Lippincott Company)

Radiological Physics 08/31/2023 23

Exposure situations
 Normal exposure:-an exposure which
is expected to be received under
normal operating conditions of
installation or a source, including
possible minor mishaps that can be
kept under control

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 Occupational exposure

 is exposure of adults who are

exposed to ionizing radiation
in the course of their work.
 Persons in the category may

be called radiation workers

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…
Medical exposure:-
 are exposures incurred by individual in
the course of diagnostic examinations
or treatment (other than occupational)
endured knowingly and willingly by
individual in the support and comfort
of patients undergoing diagnosis
treatment

Radiological Physics 08/31/2023 26

Cont..
 Medical exposure also includes exposures
incurred by volunteers participating in
programs of biomedical research.

 It refers the intentional exposure of

patients for diagnostic and therapeutic
purposes.

Radiological Physics 08/31/2023 27

…

Public exposure:-
 is exposure to the public due to a
practice or a source

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The Internal and External Hazard
 RADIATION HAZARD:-
 Results when the body is
contaminated either
--Internally or
--Externally
 Radioactive material which is
inadvertently released is known
as contamination

Radiological Physics 08/31/2023 29

 INTERNAL HAZARD
 is the hazard due to the deposition of
the radio nuclide within the body
 -internal radioactive material produces
continuous radiation exposure until it
physically decays or eliminated through
normal metabolic process
 -The rate of decay of the radioactivity
depends on its half life which can vary
from a small fraction of a second to
many thousands of years

Radiological Physics 08/31/2023 30

Cont….
 Thus when a radioactive substance enters the
body it may irradiate it
 - for only few days or

- for a much longer period in the case of

some nuclides
 If a nuclide has a long half life, an organ can
be irradiated over a long period
 Therefore, you can’t walk away from
radioactivity inside you , it is with you 24
hours a day and the hazard due to the radio
nuclide inside the body is called internal
hazard

Radiological Physics 08/31/2023 31

Common methods of internal Entry
 The three common methods of
unintentional internal acquisition of
radio nuclides are:

_ Inhalation
_ Ingestion
_ absorption

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Inhalation
 Inhalation of airborne materials is a serious
internal hazard.

e.g Strontium-90
-which is dangerous beta emitter and has a
half life of 27.4 years.
-This radio nuclide is produced in fission
reactions

Radiological Physics 08/31/2023 33

Inhalation
 Theabsorption,retention,and

elimination of material taken into the

lungs depend on
_ the size of the particle inhaled
_ its solubility and
_ the rate of respiration of the
individual inhaling it
 Persons Should particularly guard
against inhaling radio nuclides in the
form of aerosols , fine powders or
volatile liquid Radiological Physics 08/31/2023 34
INGESTION
 is entry through the mouth
 The radio nuclides may enter to the
body along in food ,drinking, etc
 It is a good radiation –protection
practice never to take unessential
personal items into the radioactive
area.
 All food, drink,smoking materials etc
should remain far from radioactive
area.
Radiological Physics 08/31/2023 35
 Absorption
 Through unbroken skin or through
abrasions, cuts, and punctures is still
another way that unwanted radioactive
material may enter to the body.
 To prevent this type of entry ,persons
handling radio nuclide should follow proper
procedures and wear protective clothing ,
particularly gloves, to protect contact
between the radio nuclide and the skin.

Radiological Physics 08/31/2023 36

EXTERNAL RADIATION HAZARDS
 It is due to radiation originating in sources
outside the body
 No physical contact with the radiation
source
 Exposure ceases when one leaves the
radiation area or the source is removed.
 Alpha radiation is not normally regarded as
an external radiation hazards as it cannot
penetrate the outer layers of the skin.
 The external hazard may be due to beta, X-
ray, gamma and neutron radiation.

Radiological Physics 08/31/2023 37

Cont….
All of them can penetrate to the sensitive
organs of the body
- The external hazard is controlled by
applying the three principles time,
distance and shielding

Radiological Physics 08/31/2023 38

Practical means/principles/ of Radiation
Protection
 The three effective means of protection
from ionizing radiation are
_time
_distance
_shielding

Radiological Physics 08/31/2023 39

TIME
 The simplest protection from ionizing radiation
is not to be where it exists.
 An important principle in dealing with
radiation is to spend as little time as possible
in the vicinity of radiation
 When the operator is using a radioactive
source , he is in a radiation field
 The strength or the dose rate field is measured
in microSevert per hour(µSv/h).

Radiological Physics 08/31/2023 40

Cont…
 For a given dose rate and time in that field
the operator will receive a dose(Sv)
Dose = Dose rate x Time
 Techniques to minimize exposure time during

working or handling ionizing radiations are

-Minimize dwelling time within the field
-Developing efficient working habits and
techniques
-Using efficient working devices
-working very quickly
-work division, etc

Radiological Physics 08/31/2023 41

 DISTANCE
 The most effective means of protection from
ionizing radiation is a wise use of distance.
 The radiation rate level reaching a particular
point in space per unit time decreases
according to an inverse square law.
 Doubling the distance will reduce the dose rate
to one/fourth
 Decreasing the distance will increase the dose
rate by four times
_ the dose rate ,according to the inverse square law,
is inversely proportional to the square of the distance.
i.e Dose rate  1/r2 where ‘r’ is the distance
from the source
Radiological Physics 08/31/2023 42
 SHIELDING
 Placing a barrier ,or a shield ,between
the radiation and the rest of the world
 The amount of shielding depends on
the type of radiation ,the activity of
the source and on the dose rate which
is acceptable outside the shielding
material
 More shielding =less exposure

Radiological Physics 08/31/2023 43

 SHIELDING
 Alpha particles are very easily absorbed.
 For Alpha particles a thin sheet of paper is
sufficient to shield
 Beta particles are more penetrating than alpha
particles
 For beta particles a few millimeters of
aluminum or a similar material is sufficient to
stop.
 Gamma sources and neutron sources are more
dangerous than beta particles
 For X-rays or gamma rays , lead of proper
thickness or concrete is used for shielding

Radiological Physics 08/31/2023 44

Cont…
Example
1.When operated at 80 kVp, an x-ray imaging
system emits 36 μGya/mAs at an SID of 100
cm. How much shielding (concrete or lead)
would be required to reduce the intensity to
less than 2.5 μGya/mAs? [0.76, 4.3]
2.An x-ray imaging system is used strictly for
chest radiography at 125 kVp. The useful
beam is always directed to a wall that
contains 0.8 mm Pb shielding. How much
additional shielding will be required if the
workload doubles?
Answer 2
 When the workload doubles, so does the
exposure on the other side of the wall. From
the Table above, it can be seen that one HVL,
or 0.27 mm Pb, is necessary to reduce
exposure to its original level.
Radiation Causes Ionization Of:
ATOMS
which will affect
MOLECULES
which may affect
CELLS
which may affect
TISSUES
which may affect
ORGANS
which may affect
THE WHOLE BODY

Module 26 58
Ionizing Radiation and Human
Cellular Level

Normal repair of damage Cell dies from damage

No repair or non-identical
Daughter cells die repair before reproduction

Module 26 59
Cont…
 The target for all health effects of ionizing radiation is the

the DNA (deoxyribonucleic) molecule.

 Even a single hit by a particle or a photon can cause a

break in the DNA molecule.

 If it is a break in one strand of the DNA only (a single

strand break) it will most probably be perfectly repaired
with no consequences for health
Cont…
 The cell may be affected in such a way that it does not
die but is simply mutated.
 The mutated cell reproduces and thus perpetuates the mutation.

 This could be the beginning of the malignant tumour.

 Generally, cells are most sensitive to radiation when
they are dividing,
 The most radiosensitive tissues are the blood, the
intestinal wall, and the fetus.
 Conversely, the most radio resistant tissues are muscle,
nerves, and the adult brain, where cell reproduction is
minimal.
Biological effects of IR
 Detererministic
 Can result from irradiation of the
body
 The resulting loss of cells can cause

severe and clinically detectable

impairment of function in tissue and
organ depending on the dose
Deterministic
 Threshold/non stochastic
◦ Existence of a dose threshold value
◦ Below this dose the effect is not observable
◦ Severity of the effect increases with dose
◦ A large number of cells are involved
Deterministic Health Effects (Cont’d)
 Early appearance (days
to weeks, excl.
cataract)
 Existence of dose
threshold, specific for
particular effect
 Below dose thresholds
- no effect
 Above threshold the
severity depends on
level of radiation dose

Module 26 64
Threshold doses for deterministic effect

 Cataracts of the lens of the eye 2-20Gy

 Permanent sterility
 Males 3.5-6Gy
 Females 2-5-6Gy

 Temporary sterility
 Males 0.15Gy
 Females 0.6Gy threshold
Examples of deterministic effects
 Lens opacities (being opaque)
 Skin injuries
 Epilating (removal of hair), etc

◦ Acute radiation syndrome

◦ Skin burns
◦ Sterility
◦ Hypothyroidism
◦ Cataract
Stochastic effects
 No threshold
 Probability of the effect increases with dose
 Generally occurs with a single cell

e.g. Cancer, genetic effects

Main types of radiation induced DNA
damages
 Base damage
 Single strand break
 Double strand break
Radio sensitivity (RS)
 Probability
of a cell, tissue or organ of
suffering an effect per unit of dose
High RS Medium Rs Low Rs

Bone marrow skin muscle

spleen mesoderm bones
Thymus Organs(liver, Nervous system
heart, lung)
Lymphatic
nodes
Gonads
Eye lens
Lymphocytes
Procedures for reducing patient dose

 Eliminate unjustified examinations

 Reduce repeat rate
 Availability of previous films
 Shield sensitive organs
 Equipment modification
--

END!
Quiz(4%)
1. Discuss Direct and Indirect effects of
radiation on human body
2. Explain Deterministic and Stochastic effects
of IR. Give examples
3. Explain Justification and Optimization of
Medical exposures
4. Discuss the three systems of radiation
protection