COURSE NAME : IRRIGATION ENGINEERING

COURSE CODE : CV0437

SEMESTER : 5
BRANCH : CIVIL ENGINEERING B SECTION
NAME OF THE FACULTY : SRIRASHMI S
 GRAVITY DAMS
A gravity dam is a solid structure, made of concrete or
masonry, constructed across a river to create a reservoir on its
upstream
The section of the gravity dam is approximately triangular in
shape, with its apex at its top and maximum width at bottom.
The section is so proportioned that it resists the various forces
acting on it by its own weight.
are usually consist of two sections; namely, the non-overflow
section and the overflow section or spillway section.
are particularly suited across gorges with very steep side slopes
where earth dams might slip and are usually cheaper than earth
dams if suitable soils are not available for their construction.
Where good foundations are available, gravity dams can be
built upto any height. It is the most permanent one, and requires
little maintenance. The most ancient gravity, dam on record was
built in Egypt more than 400 years B.C. of uncemented masonry.
 GRAVITY
DAMS
Basic Definitions
1.Axis of the dam: is the line of the upstream edge of the top (or
crown) of the dam. The axis of the dam in plan is also called the
base line of the dam. The axis of the dam in plan is usually
straight.
2.Length of the dam: is the distance from one abutment to the
other, measured along the axis of the dam at the level of the top
of the dam.
3.Structural height of the dam: is the difference in elevations of
the top of the dam and the lowest point in the excavated
foundation. It, however, does not include the depth of special
geological features of foundations such as narrow fault zones
below the foundation. In general, the height of the dam means its
structural height.
 GRAVITY
DAMS
Basic Definitions
4.Toe and Heel: The toe of the dam is the downstream edge of
the base, and the heel is the upstream edge of the base.
5.Maximum base width of the dam: is the maximum horizontal
distance between the heel and the toe of the maximum section of
the dam in the middle of the valley.
6. Hydraulic height of the dam: is equal to the difference in
elevations of the highest controlled water surface on the
upstream of the dam (i. e. FRL) and the lowest point in the river
bed
GRAVITY
DAMS
 GRAVITY
DAMS
Forces Acting on a Gravity Dam
1. Weight of the dam
2. Water pressure
3. Uplift pressure
4. Wave pressure
5. Earth and Silt pressure
6. Earthquake forces
7. Ice pressure
8. Wind pressure
9. Thermal loads.
 GRAVITY
DAMS
Forces Acting on a Gravity Dam
These forces fall into two categories as:
a)Forces, such as weight of the dam and water pressure, which
are directly calculable from the unit weights of the materials and
properties of fluid pressures; and
b)Forces, such as uplift, earthquake loads, silt pressure and ice
pressure, which can only be assumed on the basis of assumption
of varying degree of reliability.

It is in the estimating of the second category of the forces that

special care has to be taken and reliance placed on available
data, experience, and judgment.
It is convenient to compute all the forces per unit length of the
dam
 GRAVITY
DAMS

Weight of Dam
Main stabilizing force in a gravity dam
 Dead load = weight of concrete or masonry or both + weight of
such appurtenances as piers, gates and bridges.
 Weight of the dam per unit length is equal to the product of the
area of cross-section of the dam and the specific weight (or unit
weight) of the material.
 Unit weight of concrete (24 kN/m3) and masonry (23 kN/m3)
varies considerably depending upon the various materials that
go to make them.
 For convenience, the cross-section of the dam is divided into
simple geometrical shapes, such as rectangles and triangles, for
the computation of weights. The areas and controids of these
shapes can be easily determined. Thus the weight components
W1, W2, W3 etc. can be found along with their lines of action.
The total weight W of the dam acts at the C.G. of its section
 GRAVITY
DAMS
Weight of Dam

W2

W3

W1
 GRAVITY DAMS
Water Pressure (Reservoir and Tail Water Loads

Water pressure on the upstream face is the main destabilizing

(or overturning) force acting on a gravity dam.
Tail water pressure helps in the stability.
Although the weight of water varies slightly with temp., the
variation is usually ignored. Unit Mass of water is taken as 1000
kg/m3 and specific weight = 10 kN/m3 instead of 9.81 kN/m3.
The water pressure always acts normal to the face of dam.
It is convenient to determine the components of the forces in the
horizontal and vertical directions instead of the total force on
the inclined surface directly.
 GRAVITY
Water Pressure (ReservoirDAMS
and Tail Water Loads
The water pressure
intensity p (kN/m2)
varies linearly with the
depth of the water
measured below the
free surface y (m) and is
expressed as

p   wy
 GRAVITY DAMS
Water Pressure (Reservoir and Tail Water Loads
U/s face vertical: When the upstream face of the dam is
vertical, the water pressure diagram is triangular in shape
with a pressure intensity of γwh at the base, where h is the
depth of water. The total water pressure per unit length is
horizontal and is given by

1
P  2 wh
H
2
It acts horizontally at a height of h/3 above the base of the
dam.
 GRAVITY DAMS
Water Pressure (Reservoir and Tail Water Loads
U/s face inclined: When the upstream face ABC is either
inclined or partly vertical and partly inclined, the force due to
water pressure can be calculated in terms of the horizontal
component PH and the vertical component PV. The horizontal
component is given as earlier and acts horizontal at a height of
(h/3) above the base. The vertical component PV of water
pressure per unit length is equal to the weight of the water in
the prism ABCD per unit length. For convenience, the weight
of water is found in two parts PV1 and PV2 by dividing the
trapezium ABCD into a rectangle BCDE and a triangle ABE.
Thus the vertical component PV = PV1 + PV2 = weight of water
in BCDE + weight of water in ABE. The lines of action of PV1
and PV2 will pass through the respective centroids of the
rectangle and triangle.
 GRAVITY
Uplift Pressure
DAMS
Water has a tendency to seep through the pores and fissures of
the material in the body of the dam and foundation material,
and through the joints between the body of the dam and its
foundation at the base. The seeping water exerts pressure.
The uplift pressure is defined as the upward pressure of water
as it flows or seeps through the body of dam or its foundation.
A portion of the weight of the dam will be supported on the
upward pressure of water; hence net foundation reaction due to
vertical force will reduce.
The area over which the uplift pressure acts has been a
question of investigation from the early part of this century.
 One school of thought recommends that a value one-third
to
two-thirds of the area should be considered as effective over
which the uplift acts.
 GRAVITY
Uplift Pressure
DAMS
The second school of thought, recommend that the effective
area may be taken approximately equal to the total area.
Code of Indian Standards (IS : 6512-1984):
There are two constituent elements in uplift pressure: the area
factor or the percentage of area on which uplift acts and the
intensity factor or the ratio which the actual intensity of uplift
pressure bears to the intensity gradient extending from head
water to tail water at various points.
The total area should be considered as effective to account for
uplift.
The pressure gradient shall then be extending linearly to
heads corresponding to reservoir level and tailwater level.
 GRAVITY
Uplift Pressure
DAMS
Code of Indian Standards (IS : 6512-1984):
In case of drain holes: the uplift pressure at the line of drains
exceeds the tailwater pressure by one-third the differential
between the reservoir and tailwater heads. The pressure
gradient shall then be extended linearly to heads corresponding
to reservoir level and tailwater level.
In case of a crack: The uplift is assumed to be the reservoir
pressure from the u/s face to the end of the crack and from
there to vary linearly to the tailwater or drain pressure.
In absence of line of drains and for the extreme loading
conditions F and G, the uplift shall be taken as varying linearly
from the appropriate reservoir water pressure at the u/s face to
the appropriate tailwater pressure at the d/s face.
 Uplift pressures are not affected by earthquakes.
Uplift Pressure

GRAVITY DAMS
 GRAVITY
Earth and Silt Pressure
DAMS
Gravity dams are subjected to earth pressures on the
downstream and upstream faces where the foundation trench is
to be backfilled. Except in the abutment sections in specific
cases, earth pressures have usually a minor effect on the
stability of the structure and may be ignored.
 Silt is treated as a saturated cohesionless soil having full uplift
and whose value of internal friction is not materially changed
on account of submergence.
IS code recommends that a) Horizontal silt and water
pressure is assumed to be equivalent to that of a fluid with a
mass of 1360 kg/m3, and b) Vertical silt and water pressure is
determined as if silt and water together have a density of 1925
kg/m3.
Earth and Silt Pressure

GRAVITY DAMS
Ice Pressure
GRAVITY DAMS
Ice expands and contracts with changes in temperature.
In a reservoir completely frozen over, a drop in the air
temperature or in the level of the reservoir water may cause the
opening up of cracks which subsequently fill with water and
freezed solid. When the next rise in temperature occurs, the ice
expands and, if restrained, it exerts pressure on the dam.
Good analytical procedures exist for computing ice pressures,
but the accuracy of results is dependent upon certain physical
data which have not been adequately determined.
Ice pressure may be provided for at the rate of 250 kPa
applied to the face of dam over the anticipated area of contact
of ice with the face of dam.
The problem of ice pressure in the design of dam is not
encountered in India except, perhaps, in a few localities.
 GRAVITY
Wind Pressure
DAMS
Wind pressure does exist but is seldom a significant factor in
the design of a dam.
Wind loads may, therefore, be ignored.

Thermal Load
The cyclic variation of air temperature and the solar radiation
on the downstream side and the reservoir temperature on the
upstream side affect the stresses in the dam.
Even the deflection of the dam is maximum in the morning
and it goes on reducing to a minimum value in the evening.
Measures for temperature control of concrete in solid gravity
dams are adopted during construction.
Thermal are not significant in gravity dams and may be
ignored.
 GRAVITY
Wave Pressure
DAMS
The upper portions of dams are subject to the impact of
waves.
Wave pressure against massive dams of appreciable height is
usually of little consequence.
The force and dimensions of waves depend mainly on the
extent and configuration of the water surface, the velocity of
wind and the depth of reservoir water.
The height of wave is generally more important in the
determination of the free board requirements of dams to
prevent overtopping by wave splash.
An empirical method has been recommended by T. Saville for
computation of wave height hw (m), which takes into account
the effect of the shape of reservoir and wind velocity over water
surface rather than on land by applying necessary correction.
 GRAVITY
Wave Pressure
DAMS
Wind velocity of 120 km/h over water in case of normal pool
condition and of 80 km/h over water in case of maximum
reservoir condition should generally be assumed for calculation
of wave height if meteorological data is not available.
Sometimes the following Molitor’s empirical formulae are
used to estimate wave height
hw  0.032 Vw F  0.763  0.271(F )
1/ 4
for F < 32 km

hw  0.032 Vw F for F > 32 km

where Vw = wind velocity in km/hr and F = fetch length of

reservoir in km.
 GRAVITY
Wave Pressure
DAMS
 Wave pressure diagrams can be approx by triangle l-2-3

Max pressure pw in
kPa occurs at 0.125
hw, above the still
water level and is
given by
p w  24hw

The total wave force

Pw, (in kN) is given by
the area of triangle
P  20h 2
w w
 GRAVITY
Earthquake Forces
DAMS
An earthquake sets random vibrations (waves) in the earth's
crust, which can be resolved in any three mutually
perpendicular directions. This motion causes the structure to
vibrate.
The waves impart accelerations to the foundations under the
dam and causes its movement.
Acceleration introduces an inertia force in the body of dam
and sets up stresses initially in lower layers and gradually in the
whole body of the dam.
The vibration intensity of ground expected at any location
depends upon the magnitude of earthquake, the depth of focus,
distance from the epicentre and the strata on which the
structure stands.
 GRAVITY
Earthquake Forces
DAMS
Basic seismic coefficients (α0) and seismic zone factors (F0) in
different zones shall be taken as given in Table. The design
seismic forces shall be computed on the basis of importance of
the structure I (Table) and its soil-foundation system β (Table).
In Seismic Coefficient Method the design value of horizontal
seismic coefficient (αh) shall be computed as

 h  I0
In response Spectrum Method the response acceleration
coefficient is first obtained for the natural period and damping
of the structure and the design value of horizontal seismic
coefficient (αh) shall be computed using

 h  IF0 S a g
 GRAVITY
Earthquake Forces
DAMS
Basic seismic coefficients (α0) and seismic zone factors (F0) in
different zones shall be taken as given in Table. The design
seismic forces shall be computed on the basis of importance of
the structure I (Table) and its soil-foundation system β (Table).
In Seismic Coefficient Method the design value of horizontal
seismic coefficient (αh) shall be computed as

 h  I0
In response Spectrum Method the response acceleration
coefficient is first obtained for the natural period and damping
of the structure and the design value of horizontal seismic
coefficient (αh) shall be computed using

 h  IF0 S a g
Reservoirs
A reservoirs has two categories:

1- Storage

2- Distribution

Physical Characteristics of Reservoirs

Primary function is to store
Most important characteristic:“storage capacity”
 Reservoir: Collects water behind a dam or barrier
 Reservoirs are constructed for:
 Drinking water,
 Irrigation,
 Hydropower,
 Flood mitigation
 During a specified time interval;
S (supply) < D (demand)
Need for “water storage”
Reservoir
Spillway crest
Upstream
Dam body Spillway

Downstream
 Storage zones in a reservoir

Maximum pool level

Surcharge storage Retarding pool level

Flood control storage Spillway crest

Normal pool level

Active storage or Useful storage

Flow
Sluiceway
Minimum pool level

Dead storage

Sediment accumulation
Total reservoir storage components:

a) Normal pool level

b) Minimum pool level
c) Active storage
d) Dead storage
e) Flood control storage
f) Surcharge storage
 Normal pool level is the maximum elevation to which
the reservoir surface will rise for ordinary reservoir
operations.
 Minimum pool level is the lowest allowable elevation to
which the reservoir surface level can fall.
 Dead storage is located below minimum pool level. The
top elevation is dictated by amount of sediment
accumulation at the end of the life time of reservoir.
 Therefore, the elevation of the lowest sluiceway must be
located at least at minimum pool level. Water stored below
this level is not available for any use.
 The storage between minimum and normal pool levels is
named as useful or active storage.
 The flood control storage occupies between the retarding
and normal pool levels.
 The surcharge storage stays between retarding and
maximum pool level.
 General guidelines for a reservoir location:

  Cost of the dam

 Cost of real estate
 Topographic conditions to store water
 Possibility of deep reservoir
 Avoiding from tributary areas
 Quality of stored water
 Reliable hill-slopes
 Reservoir Yield
 Yield: Amount of water that reservoir can deliver in a prescribed interval of
time.
 The yield is based on
 inflow
 capacity
 Firm (safe) yield: Amount of water that can be supplied during a critical period.
 Can be never determined by certainty
Target yield: specified for a reservoir based on the estimated demands in
most cases.

Secondary yield: Water available in excess of safe yield during high flow
periods
 Selection of Capacity of a Storage
Reservoir

 Designing the capacity of a storage

reservoir involves with determination of the
critical period during Inflow < Demand
There are 4 approaches to determine the
capacity

1) Mass curve (Ripple diagram) method;

2) Sequent-peak algorithm;
3) Operation study;
4) Optimization analysis
1) Mass curve (Ripple diagram) method
Features of Mass Curve

 Cumulative plotting of net reservoir inflow.

 Slope of mass curve gives the value of inflow (S)
at that time.
 Slope of demand curve gives the demand rate
(D) or yield.
 Mass curve (Ripple diagram) method

 The difference between the lines (a+b) tangent to

the demand line (∑D) drawn at the highest and
lowest points (A and B, respectively) of mass curve
(∑S) gives the rate of withdrawal from reservoir
during that critical period.
 The maximum cumulative value between tangents is
the required storage capacity (active storage).
 Mass curve method
S,D

a b
D
a+b

t
t1 t2
∑S, ∑D ∑D

A
a+b b
a ∑S
B

t
t1 t2

Mass curve analysis

 2) Sequent-Peak Analysis

 The mass curve approach is easy to use when short periods of data are
to be analyzed.
 SPA is a modification of the Mass Curve analysis for lengthy time series
and particularly suited to computer coding.
The steps of sequent-peak analysis are as follows:

1) Plot ∑ (Inflow-Withdrawal) : in symbolized fashion  ∑(S-D)

Sequent-peak
Sequent-peak Sequent-peak
∑(FLOW-DEMAND)

Maximum storage
Time

Illustration of the sequent –peak algorithm

2) Locate the initial peak and the next peak
3) Compute the storage required which is the difference between
the initial peak and the lowest trough in the interval,
4) Repeat the process for all sequent peaks,
5) Determine the largest value of storages as “STORAGE CAPACITY
 Spillways
 SPILLWAY
 A spillway is a structure used to provide
for the controlled release of flows from a
dam or levee into a downstream area,
typically being the river that was
dammed.

 to prevent overtopping and possible

failure of the dam.

Ogee Spillway

49
Spillway Crest

50
Spillway

51
Stepped
Chute
Spillway

52
Drop Spillway

53
Flip Bucket

54
 Common type of spillways:

1) Free over fall/straight drop spillways

2) Overflow or ogee spillways.
3) Chute spillways
4) Siphon saddle spillway

55
Free overfall or straight drop spillway

•In this type, water drops freely from the crest.

•Occasionally the crest is extended in the form of

overhanging lip to direct small discharges away from the
face of overfall section.

56
Ogee or overflow spillway

•The Ogee spillway is generally provided in rigid dams and forms a part of
the main dam itself if sufficient length is available. 
•The overflow type spillway has a crest shaped in the form of an ogee or S-
shape.
•The upper curve at the crest may be made either larger or sharper than the
nappe.
 Ogee
Spillway

58
Chute spillway

•chute spillways are used in flow ways where water is to be lowered

from one level to another and where it is desirable to avoid a stilling
basin.
•These are mostly used with earth dams and have the following merit.
It can be provided on any type of foundations.
Simplicity of design.
However this type of spillway should not be provided where too
many bends are to be given as per topography.

Baffle apron or chute spillway

Chute Spillway

60
Saddle spillways

•A siphon spillway is a closed conduit system formed in the shape of an

inverted U.

•This type of siphon is also called a Saddle siphon spillway.

•Siphonic action takes place after the air in the bend over the crest has
been exhausted.

61
 Overflow Spillway

Basic equation flow over weirs,

Where
Q=discharge m3/s
3/ 2 Cd=coefficient of discharge
Q  Cd Le H e Le=effective length
He=actual effective head

He  Hd  Ha Hd=design head
Ha=head due to velocity of approach
(sometimes neglected)

Le = effective width of crest

L’ = net width of crest(clear waterway x
no.of spans)
Le  L'2( N * K p  K a )H e N = number of piers
Kp = pier contraction coefficient
Ka = abutment contraction coefficient

62
 Required spillway capacity

 Spillway capacity should be equal to the max. outflow rate determined

by flood routing. The following data are required for the flood routing.

I. Inflow flood hydrograph-Indicates rate of inflow respect to time.

II. Reservoir capacity curve-indicates the reservoir storage at different
reservoir elevations.
III. Outflow discharge curve-indicates the rate of outflow through
spillways at different reservoir elevations.

63
 Contraction Coefficients
Table 1: Pier Contraction Coefficient (Kp)

Table 2: Abutment Contraction Coefficient (Ka)

*Pier contraction coefficient depends on several factors such as shape and location of pier nose,
thickness of piers and velocity of approach.
*Abutment contraction coefficient depends on factors such as shape of abutment and velocity
of approach.
 Design head, Hd

Q
H d
 3/ 2
Cd Le

•Downstream profile

•d/s profile of spillway can be represented by

x,y= coordinates of the point on the spillway surface

Hd=design head
K,n= constant, depend on inclination of the upstream face of
spillway

65
 Different inclination of upstream face of spillway
*For overspillway/ogee, the upstream face is vertical

•The slope of the d/s face of the overflow dam

usually varies in the range of 0.7:1 to 0.8:1

•Z is total fall from the upstream water level to

the floor level

•P is height of spillway crest above the bed.

•Y depth of flow at toe
•R is radius
•V is velocity of flow at toe

66
slope of the d/s face of the overflow section

dy 1

dx 0.8

67
  Energy Dissipation below Spillways
 2 types
 Devices using Hydraulic Jump: Hydraulic Jump can be defined as a phenomenon
which velocity is distinct rise or jump of water, accompanied by a great deal of
turbulence. This occurs when a shallow stream of water moving with a high
velocity strikes a stream of water moving with a low velocity.
 Hydraulic jump can be classified based on initial Froude number : F1=(V1/√gy1)
 As undular jump : F1= 1.0-1.7 , (5%)
 Weak jump : 1.7-2.5 (20%)
 Oscillating Jump : 2.5 – 4.5 ( 20-40%)
 Steady jump : 4.5- 9.0 (45-70%)
 Strong Jump : > 9.0 (70 – 85%)

 Devices using Bucket

68
End