Surveying

•What is surveying?
Surveying may be defined as the science of determining the
position, in three dimensions, of natural and man-made features
on or beneath the surface of the Earth. These features may then
be represented in analog form as a contoured map, plan or
chart, or in digital form as a three dimensional mathematical
model stored in the computer.
 Objective of course

• To understand the basic concept of surveying

• Apply the surveying concept and equipments in real life

• You should be able to use a set of tools to solve the problems

in an optimal way

• You should be able to understand the pitfalls (sources of

error) to avoid them
Application of surveying in civil Engineering
• The planning and design of all Civil Engineering projects such as
construction of highways, bridges, tunnels, dams etc are based upon
surveying measurements.
• Project of any magnitude is constructed along the lines and points
established by surveying. Thus, surveying is a basic requirement for all
Civil Engineering projects.
• Other principal works in which surveying is primarily utilized are
• •  to fix the national and state boundaries;
• •  to chart coastlines, navigable streams and lakes;
• •  to establish control points
• •  to execute hydrographic and oceanographic charting and mapping; and
• •  to prepare topographic map of land surface of the earth.
 Instruments…
Levelling Staff
Tilting Level
Dumpy Level

Telescope is fixed cannot be tilted

or moved
Telescope can be tilted slightly
about its horizontal axis with the
help of tilting screw.
The line of collimation is made
horizontal for each observation
with the help of tilting screw

Instrument can be levelled automatically

Digital level within a certain tilt range
Levelling staff
Classification of surveying: Based on function
• Primary division based on shape of the earth
– Geodic survey: if the area surveyed is more than 1000 km2 geodic surveying
must be employed
– Plane survey
• Classification based on function of survey
– Control surveying: establishing the horizontal and vertical positions of widely
spaced control points using geodic method.
– Land surveying: to determine the boundaries and areas of parcel of land.
– City surveying: urban planning
– Topographic surveys: depiction of topography of a region. Including natural
and man made features
– Engineering survey: for laying out engineering projects.
– Route survey: planning designing and execution of highways, railways, canals,
pipelines etc.
– Construction surveys: required to establish points lines, grades and for staking
out engineering works after the plans have been prepared and the structural
design has n=been done.
Classification of surveying: Based on function

– Astronomic survey: are conducted for the determination of

latitudes, longitudes, azimuths, local time etc. for various
places by observing heavenly bodies such as suns and stars.
– Geological survey: to determine the strata of the earth’s crust
for geological studies.
– Archaeological surveys: unearthing relics of antiquity
– Mine surveys: exploration of mineral deposits, and to guide
tunnelling and other operations associated with mining.
– Satellite surveys: to establish intercontinental, interdatum and
interisland geodic ties over the world by making satellite
observations.
– Military surveys: conducted for military purpose.
 Classification of surveying: Based on
instruments
• Chain survey: only linear measurements are made with chain or tape no angular
measurements are taken
• Compass survey: horizontal angles are measured with the help of magnetic
compass
• Plane table survey: The map is prepared in the field itself by determining the
directions of various lines making linear measurements, and plotting the details
on paper using a plane table
• Levelling survey: this type of survey is used to determine the elevations and
relative heights of the points with the help of instrument known as level.
• Theodolite survey: theodolite survey is primarily used in traversing and
triangulation for providing controls. The horizontal and vertical angles are
measured with the help of theodolite.
• Tacheometric survey: a special type of theodolite known as tacheometer, is used
to determine horizontal and vertical distances directly.
• Photogrammetric survey: measurements are made with help photograph.
• EDM Survey: linear measurements are made with the help of EDM instruments.
 Principles of surveying
• Fixing the points in relation to points already
fixed http
://nptel.iitm.ac.in/courses/Webcourse-conten
ts/IIT-ROORKEE/SURVEYING/modules/module
1/htmlpage/9.htm#
 Principle of surveying
• Working from whole to part:
• to localize the errors and
• to control the accumulation of errors.

– Establish primary control points with high precision

– Establish secondary and tertiary control points within the
system boundary and form triangle/rectangle may be with
less precision.
– This will help in localizing the error and to control the
propagation of error.
Working from whole to part
 Types of Chains and Tapes
• Before the ability to make steel rods and bands, sticks were
cut into lengths of 16.5’ (Rod) and they were laid end to
end to measure.
• Gunter’s Chain
– 66’ long with 100 link w/each link being 7.92 inches or 66 feet
long
– Developed by Edmund Gunter in 1600’s in England and made with
individual wires with a loop at each end connected
– Chain had between 600-800 wearing surfaces which with hard use
would wear and cause chain to elongate
– Measurements were recorded in chains and links
– 7ch 94.5lk = 7.945 ch = 7.945 X 66’/ch = 524.37’
– 1 chain = 4 rods; 80 chains = 1 mile
 Types of Chains and Tapes
• Engineer’s Chain
– Same construction as Gunter’s Chain, but each link is 1.0’ long
and was used for engineering projects
• Surveyor’s and Engineer’s Tapes
– Made of ¼” to 3/8” wide steel tapes in 100’; 200’; 300’ lengths
– Multiple types of marking and graduation:
• Available in chains, feet, and metric
• Graduated:
– Throughout – feet and tenths marked the entire length
– Extra foot – feet marked the length of the tape with additional foot at the 0
end graduated in tenths and hundreds of the foot
 Types of Chains and Tapes
• Invar Tapes
– Made of special nickel steel to reduce length variations due to
temperature changes
– The tapes are extremely brittle and expensive
– Used most of the time for standard comparison of tapes
• Cloth, Fiberglass, and PVC Tapes:
– Lower accuracy and stored on reels. Used for measurement of
0.1’ accuracy requirements
Accessories
1. Chaining Pins – set of 11, used to mark the tape lengths
2. Hand Level – used to determine required plumbing height
3. Plumb Bob – used to transfer the mark from the tape to ground
4. Tension Handle – used to maintain correct tension on tape
 Taping (Field Process)
1. The line to be taped should be marked at both ends
– Keeps measurement on line
– Rear chain person should keep the head chain person on line
– 1’ of line error/100’ = 0.01’ error in length
2. Applying Tension
– Rear chainman is anchor and should hold 100’ mark over point
• Tension is applied by head chain person – normally 12 to 30 pounds of
pull
• Tapes are standardized at 12 lbs., but greater is utilized to compensate for
sag
 Taping (Field Process)
3. Plumbing
– One end of tape is raised to maintain a horizontal measuring
plane. ONLY one end is elevated
• This allows measurements to be made on uneven ground
• If a high spot exists in center, “break” tape by measuring to the top and
then move forward to complete the distance
 Slope Measurements:
• Generally, measurements are made horizontally, but on
even, often man-made slopes the distance can be
measured directly on the slope, but the vertical or zenith
angle must be obtained.
– Horizontal Distance = sin Zenith Angle X Slope Distance
– Horizontal Distance = cos Vertical Angle X Slope Distance
 Stationing:
• Starting point is 0+00 and each 100’ is one station
700’ from starting point is Station 7+00
• If distance is 857.23’ from starting point, it is
expressed as Station 8+57.23
 Taping Error:
1. Instrumental Error – a tape may have different length due to defect
in manufacture or repair or as the result of links
2. Natural Error – length of tape varies from normal due to
temperature, wind and weight of tape (sag)
3. Personal Error – tape person may be careless in setting pins,
reading the tape, or manipulating the equipment
► Instrumental and natural error can be corrected mathematically, but personal
error can only be corrected by remeasure.
► When a tape is obtained, it should either be standardized or checked against a
standard.
• Tapes standardized at National Bureau of Standards in Maryland
► Standardized at 68 degrees F and 12 lbs. tension fully supported.
 Tape Error Correction:
1) Measuring between two existing points:
1) If a tape is long, the distance will be short, thus any correction
must be added
2) If tape is short, the distance will be long, thus any correction
must be subtracted
3) If you are setting or establishing a point, the above rule is
reversed.

Generally can correct for tape length, temperature,

tension, and sag, but tension and sag are negated by
increasing tension to approximately 25 – 30 lbs.
 Error in Taping:
• Tape Length: Correction per foot = Error in 100’/100’
– If tape was assumed to be 100.00’ but when standardized was
found to be 100.02’ after distance measured at 565.75’
– then: Correction =(100.02-100.00)/100.00 = 0.0002’ error/ft
– 565.75’ X .0002’/’ = 0.11’ correction and based upon rule, must be
added, thus true distance = 565.86’
– If tape had been 99.98’ then correction would be subtracted and
true distance would be 565.64’
 Error in Taping:
• Temperature – Tapes in U.S. are standardized at 68F; the
temperature difference above or below that will change the
length of the tape
– Tapes have a relatively constant coefficient of expansion of
0.0000065 per unit length per F
– CT = 0.0000065(Temp (F)-68) Length
– Example: Assume a distance was measured when temperature
was 30°F using a 100’ tape was 872.54’ (68 – 30) X 0.00000645
X 872.54’ = 0.21’ error tape is short, thus distance is long,
error must be subtracted and thus 872.54’ – 0.21’ = 872.33’

(note: temperature difference is absolute difference)

 Taping: Corrections

Once a line is being measured, it is necessary to convert the measured length

into a horizontal length. Series corrections have to be applied. Five possible
corrections have to be considered. These are

• Erroneous Tape Length

• Slope
• Tension
• Temperature
• Sag

25
Taping: Corrections

 For synthetic tapes, only Erroneous Tape Length and

slope corrections will be applied
 The best accuracy that can be achieved is the order of
1:1000
 When using steel tapes, if only Erroneous Tape Length
and slope corrections are considered, the best possible
accuracy that can be obtained in the range 1:5000 If
tension and temperature are added into consideration,
accuracy can be increased to better than 1:10000 ~ 1:
20000
 Sag only applies if tape is supported only at ends 26
 Erroneous Tape Length

• tape has a nominal length under certain conditions, a

tape stretches with time.
• standardisation needs to be carried out frequently by
using reference tape or baseline.
standardisation
length
(actual tape length)
LsL
e
stL
m n
 L 
 n 
nominal length
(assumed tape length) 27
 For a 30m Nominal Length Tape

Tape used

When comparing to a standard tape, the tape used indeed has a length

30 m + ∆l

For every 30m measurement, the small elongated amount should be added for
correction.
 Slope Correction

• All plan distances are always quoted as horizontal distances L,

therefore any distance not measured on the horizontal will
need to be corrected for slope. Slope correction must ALWAYS
be considered, and either eliminated in the field or
mathematically compensated.

Lm
e 
L1

slope
m 
cos 
Angle may be measured by
Theodolites

29
 Tension Correction

• A tape is a given length when pulled with a certain

tension. If the tension changes then so does the
tape length.
Standardisation tension
Tension applied

e 
T
TsL
m
tension
E
 A
Cross section
Modulus of Elasticity
Area
of tape material
For steel, E = 200,000 N/mm2 30
 Temperature Correction

• Most materials expand and contract with

temperature change, and this effects taped
distances. If a tape has stretched due to heat it will
read shorter than it would at its normal (or
standard) temperature.

e 
L
(
temp
m 
t
) 
Length error due to Temperature
Measured Coefficient of
Temperature change
length linear expansion
change
31
 Sag Correction

• If the tape cannot be supported for its

length then it will hang freely under
the influence of gravity. The shape of
the tape will take is known as (sag) and
can be determined mathematically.

Weight of tape
per unit length Angle of slope

e
23
m
2

wL 
cos
catenary 2
24

T
Tension applied to the ends
32
 Combined Errors

Actual length is:

L

aL

me
e
e
e
temp
st
sag
e
slop
ten

Steel Taping: Examples

33
  
temperatur
e
correction

Lm 
t 

29
.
872

0
. 5
00001
 20 12


0.
0050
m
L
s
L
standardis
ation
correction
L
m n

L
n
w2
Lmcos
3
2
 30 
sag
correction
- 29.
872
 .
014

30
.00
24
T2 
30
.
000

0 
.17
2
29 
.872
3 2 o
cos34 
0 
0.
0139
m
120
24 2
0
.0022
m
slope
-L
m1
- 

correction
cos

tension
T sL
-T
correction
 m

29
. 1
872 o
cos
3
40

EA 
0
.0611
m

120 
50 29
.872
3
200
102
0.0052
m

horizontal length AB = 29.872-0.0050+0.0139-0.0022-0.0611+0.0052

34
= 29.823m
A steel tape of nominal length 30 m was used to
measure a line AB by suspending it between
supports. The following measurements were
recorded

Line Length Measured Slope Angle Mean Temp. Tension

AB 29.872 m 3o 40’ 5oC 120 N

The standardisation length of the tape against a

reference tape was known to be 30.014 m at 20oC
and 50 N.

If the tape weighs 0.17 N/m and has a cross 35