Because learning changes everything.

Chapter 02
The Chemistry of
Life

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 Life “matters”

• This dog, the water, and the

air are all forms of matter.
• Matter is any material that
takes up space.
• The matter that makes up
every object consists of one
or more chemical elements.
• An element is a substance
that cannot be broken down
by chemical means into
other substances.

Photodisc/Getty Images

Section 2.1
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 The periodic table lists all known elements

This abbreviated periodic table shows some of the most

important elements in life.

Section 2.1 Access the text alternative for slide images.

Figure 2.1
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 The periodic table organizes the elements

Each box shows one element, including the element’s full

name and the element’s one or two letter symbol.

Section 2.1 Figure 2.1

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 The periodic table shows the properties of the elements

To understand these properties, we

first need to learn about atoms,
protons, neutrons, and electrons.

Section 2.1 Figure 2.1

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 Atoms make up all matter

This is an atom, the smallest piece of an element that retains

the characteristics of the element.

An atom is composed of three smaller particles: protons,

neutrons, and electrons.
Section 2.1 Figure 2.2
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 Protons, neutrons & electrons are subatomic particles

Electrons surround the atomic nucleus. They are very small

and move very fast.

Protons and neutrons are close together in the atomic

nucleus, which is the center of the atom.
Section 2.1 Figure 2.2
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 Subatomic particles are electrically charged

TABLE 2.1 Types of Particles in an Atom

Particle Charge Mass Location

Surrounding
Electron Negative (–) ~0
nucleus
Neutron None 1 Nucleus

Proton Positive (+) 1 Nucleus

Section 2.1 Table 2.1

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 Ions are charged atoms

Ions are formed when an atom either gains or loses electrons. The
hydrogen ion (H+) is positively charged because it has lost an
electron and is left with its one proton.

Section 2.1 Access the text alternative for slide images.

Figure 2.3
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 Protons determine the atomic number

An element’s atomic number indicates how many protons

are in each atom of that element.
Oxygen has
8 protons.

Section 2.1 Figure 2.1

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 Protons and neutrons determine the atomic mass

An atom’s mass number is the total number of protons and

neutrons in its atomic nucleus.
The mass number
of the carbon atom
is 12.

Section 2.1 Figure 2.2

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 Isotopes are different forms of the same element

• The number of
neutrons may vary
among atoms of the
same element.
• An isotope is any of
these different forms of
the element.

Section 2.1 Figure 2.4

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 Isotopes: same atomic number, different atomic mass

• Each isotope of an
element has a different
mass, because the
number of neutrons
differs.
• Carbon isotopes have a
mass of 12, 13, and 14.

Section 2.1 Figure 2.4

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 Atomic weight is the average mass

Carbon’s atomic weight is close to 12, even though some carbon

isotopes have an atomic mass of 13 and 14. This is because about
99% of all carbon isotopes have an atomic mass of 12.

Section 2.1 Figure 2.1

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 Clicker Question #1

The atomic weight of nitrogen is very near 14, indicating

that most nitrogen atoms have a mass number of 14. How
many neutrons does the average nitrogen atom have?
A. 0
7
B. 7
Nitrogen
C. 8 N
14.0067
D. 14
E. Not enough information to determine.

Figure 2.1
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 Clicker Question #1, Solution

The atomic weight of nitrogen is very near 14, indicating

that most nitrogen atoms have a mass number of 14. How
many neutrons does the average nitrogen atom have?

7
B. 7
Nitrogen
N
14.0067

Figure 2.1
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 2.1 Mastering Concepts

Where in an atom are protons, neutrons, and electrons

located?

Answer: Protons and neutrons are located in the nucleus of

the atom while electrons in clouds around the nucleus.

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 Chemical bonds link atoms together

• Atoms are organized

into molecules, two or
more chemically joined
atoms.
• Each of these water
molecules is a
compound of two
hydrogen atoms and
one oxygen atom.
• Compounds are
molecules of two or
more elements.
Section 2.2
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 Electrons determine chemical bonding

The number and distribution of electrons around an atom determine

whether and how the atom will react with other atoms.

Section 2.2 Access the text alternative for slide images.

Figure 2.5
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 Electrons exist in energy shells

• Energy shells, or orbitals, contain the atom’s electrons.

• Shells exist at various distances from the atom’s nucleus.
• The shell farthest from the nucleus is important for bonding.

Section 2.2 Figure 2.5

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 Electrons are arranged in pairs

• Unpaired electrons form bonds with other atoms.

• Atoms are stablest when their outer shells have no vacancies.
• Vacancies make the atom less stable and more likely to bond with
other atoms.

Section 2.2 Figure 2.5

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 Bonding with other atoms fills vacancies

Carbon (C) has Hydrogen (H)

four vacancies has one
in its outer shell. vacancy.

Section 2.2 Figure 2.8

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 Atoms without vacancies are stable

When four H-atoms share their electrons

with a C-atom, all five atoms fill their
outer energy shells.

Section 2.2 Figure 2.8

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 Chemical bonds link atoms into a molecule

The result is a methane molecule (CH4).

Notice how the outer shells of the atoms
overlap to form this molecule.

Section 2.2 Figure 2.8

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 Covalent bonds are shared electrons

When atoms share electrons, as in this

methane molecule, covalent bonds are
formed.

Section 2.2 Figure 2.8

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 Electronegativity measures an atom’s ability to attract
electrons

Atoms with low Atoms with high

electronegativity attract electronegativity attract
electrons weakly. electrons strongly.

Section 2.2 Access the text alternative for slide images.

Figure 2.6
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 Electronegativity differences determine chemical bonds

Section 2.2 Figures 2.6, 2.8

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 Some atoms have similar electronegativity

Methane is composed of carbon and hydrogen atoms.

Neither atom pulls electrons

much more strongly than the
other.

Section 2.2 Figures 2.6, 2.8

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 Atoms with similar electronegativity form nonpolar covalent
bonds

Methane is held together by nonpolar covalent bonds.

Section 2.2 Figure 2.8

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 Some atoms have different electronegativity

Water is composed of oxygen and hydrogen atoms.

The oxygen atom pulls electrons

towards itself much more strongly
than the hydrogen atoms can.

Section 2.2 Figures 2.6, 2.8

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 Atoms with different electronegativity form polar covalent
bonds

Water is held together by polar covalent bonds.

Section 2.2 Figure 2.8

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 Very electronegative atoms can take electrons

The Cl atom is so much

better at attracting electrons
that it completely pulls an
electron away from the Na
atom.

Section 2.2 Figures 2.6, 2.7

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 Transfer of electrons forms ions

• Ions are charged atoms.

• The Cl− ion has one extra electron. The Na+ ion has one
less electron.

Section 2.2 Figure 2.6

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 The attraction between oppositely charged ions creates ionic
bonds

Salt (sodium chloride) is held together by ionic bonds.

Section 2.2 Access the text alternative for slide images.

Figure 2.7
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 Some atoms are partially charged

Since electrons spend more

time near oxygen, the
oxygen atom has a slightly
negative charge.

Since electrons spend less time

near hydrogen, hydrogen atoms
have a slight positive charge.

Section 2.2 Figure 2.10 a

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 Partial charge in molecules creates hydrogen bonds

• The slight positive charge

on the hydrogen atom of
one water molecule
attracts the slight
negative charge on the
oxygen of an neighboring
water molecule.
• The result is a hydrogen
bond.

Section 2.2 Figure 2.10 b

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 Hydrogen bonds give water its emergent properties

• Hydrogen bonds pull

water molecules close to
each other.
• They give water a
collection of unique
properties, and they are
very important in protein
and DNA structure.

Section 2.2 Figure 2.10

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 Clicker Question #2

Nitrogen has three vacancies in its outer electron shell. What

type of bond might nitrogen form with hydrogen? How many
hydrogen atoms would one nitrogen atom bind? (You might
need to reference the electronegativity scale in Fig. 2.6.)
A. ionic bond; 1 hydrogen atom
B. ionic bond; 3 hydrogen atoms
C. covalent bond; 1 hydrogen atom
D. covalent bond; 3 hydrogen atoms
E. hydrogen bond; 1 hydrogen atom

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 Clicker Question #2, Solution

Nitrogen has three vacancies in its outer electron shell. What

type of bond might nitrogen form with hydrogen? How many
hydrogen atoms would one nitrogen atom bind? (You might
need to reference the electronegativity scale in Fig. 2.6.)

D. covalent bond; 3 hydrogen atoms

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 2.2 Mastering Concepts

What is the relationship between polar covalent bonds and

hydrogen bonds?

Answer: Polar covalent bonds result in an electronegative

atom that can then attract a hydrogen atom that has a partial
positive charge creating a hydrogen bond.

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 Water is essential to life

• The hydrogen bonds that

hold water molecules
together give water a
collection of important
unique properties.
• These emergent
properties of water make
it essential for all life.

Section 2.3 Figure 2.10

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 Water has unique properties Water is cohesive

Cohesion is the tendency of water molecules to stick to one

another.

Cohesion
between
molecules on
the surface of
liquid water
give it high
surface
tension.
Photo: ©Herman Eisenbeiss/Science Source

Section 2.3 Figure 2.11

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 Water has unique properties Water is adhesive

Water molecules also

form hydrogen bonds
with other molecules, a
property called
adhesion.

Photo: Crawford A. Wilson III/Moment/Getty Images

Section 2.3 Access the text alternative for slide images.

Figure 2.12
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 Water has unique properties Water is cohesive and
adhesive

Together, cohesion and

adhesion allow water
molecules to “climb”
from a tree’s roots to its
highest leaves.

Photo: Crawford A. Wilson III/Moment/Getty Images

Section 2.3 Figure 2.12

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 Water has unique properties Water is an excellent solvent

Water dissolves hydrophilic

(“water-loving”) substances.
• Polar solutes
• Ions

The polarity of water molecules

helps water dissolve most
biologically important molecules,
since many of them are
hydrophilic.

Section 2.3 Figure 2.13

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 Water dissolves salt

• The slight negative

charge on water attracts
positive charges (Na+).
• The slight positive charge
on water attracts negative
charges (Cl−).

Section 2.3 Access the text alternative for slide images.

Figure 2.13
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 Water has unique properties Water regulates temperature

• Hydrogen bonds make

water resist changes in
temperature.
• So, water cools and
heats up very slowly.
• This is why coastal
regions have milder
temperatures than
landlocked regions and
QxQ IMAGES/Datacraft/Getty Images also how sweating cools
the body.

Section 2.3 Figure 2.14

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 Water has unique properties Water expands when it
freezes

• Hydrogen bonds make water

molecules spread out as it
freezes into ice.
• This why ice is less dense
than liquid water, and the ice
floats to the top.
• In large bodies of water, a top
layer of ice provides insulation
and keeps the rest from
freezing underneath.
• Thus, it is possible for aquatic
life to survive the winter.

Section 2.3 Figure 2.15

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 Water has unique properties Water participates in
chemical reactions

A chemical reaction occurs

when two or more
molecules, the reactants,
exchange their atoms
resulting in different
molecules, the products.

Water participates in life’s

chemical reactions.
• Photosynthesis
• Respiration

Section 2.3
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 Clicker Question #3

Which property contributes to the high surface tension of

water?
A. Hydrogen bonding
B. Polar covalent bonds
C. Cohesion
D. Polar covalent bonds and cohesion
E. All of the choices are correct.

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 Clicker Question #3, Solution

Which property contributes to the high surface tension of

water?

E. All of the choices are correct.

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 2.3 Mastering Concepts

Differentiate between hydrophilic and hydrophobic

molecules.

Answer: Hydrophilic molecules are polar and readily dissolve

in water. Hydrophobic molecules are nonpolar and do not
dissolve in water easily.

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 Cells have an optimum pH

• The pH scale is based on the

amount of H+ in a solution.
• Most of the chemical
reactions in cells occur
around pH = 7.

Section 2.4 Access the text alternative for slide images.

Figure 2.16
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 pH scale shows the amount of H+ ions in solutions

Acidic solutions have a

low pH and a high H+
concentration.

Basic solutions have a

high pH and a low H+
concentration. Bases have
more OH− ions than H+
ions.

Section 2.4 Figure 2.16

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 Organisms balance acids and bases

If an organism strays too far

from its optimal pH, it could
die.

Buffer solutions help

Many maintain a constant pH by
organisms absorbing or releasing H+ into
maintain pH a solution.
homeostasis • When pH is too high,
close to pH = 7. buffers release H+ ions to
lower the pH.

• When pH is too low,

buffers absorb H+ ions to
raise the pH.
Section 2.4 Figure 2.16
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 Clicker Question #4

Which is the most acidic solution?

A. H+ concentration = 10−2
B. pH = 12
C. H+ concentration = 10−12
D. OH− concentration = H+ concentration.
E. pH = 3

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 Clicker Question #4, Solution

Which is the most acidic solution?

A. H+ concentration = 10−2

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 2.4 Mastering Concepts

How do buffer systems regulate the pH of a fluid?

Answer: Buffer systems consist of pairs of weak acids and

weak bases that can interact to resist changes in pH.

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 Cells contain four major types of organic molecules

An organic molecule
contains both carbon and
hydrogen. Methane is a
simple organic molecule.

Section 2.5 Figure 2.8

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 Organic molecules are made up of functional groups

Carbon and hydrogen

chains and rings are
differentiated by
chemically reactive
groups, such as:
• Hydroxyl
• Carboxyl
• Amino
• Phosphate

Section 2.5 Access the text alternative for slide images.

Figure 2.17
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 Organic molecules are biologically important

The organic molecules

needed for life’s
processes are
categorized into four
main types:
• Carbohydrates
• Proteins
• Nucleic acids
• Lipids

Section 2.5 Access the text alternative for slide images.

Figure 2.31
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 Organic molecules are in our food

• Carbohydrates,
proteins, and fats are
common in our diets.

• Some are considered

“healthy” while others
are associated with
obesity, heart disease,
and diabetes.
Ingram Publishing/Alamy

Section 2.5 Table 2.4

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 Organic molecules are made of monomers

A monomer is a single unit of a carbohydrate, protein, or

nucleic acid. Monomers join to form polymers.

Section 2.5 Access the text alternative for slide images.

Figure 2.30
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 Dehydration synthesis joins monomers together

• Dehydration synthesis is a type of chemical reaction.

• To synthesize a polymer, enzymes form bonds between
two monomers.
• As part of the reaction, a water molecule is released.

Section 2.5 Figure 2.18

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 Hydrolysis breaks polymers apart

• Hydrolysis is a type of chemical reaction.

• To “digest” or break down a polymer, enzymes break
bonds between the monomers.
• A water molecule is required for the reaction to occur.

Section 2.5 Figure 2.18

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 Carbohydrates include simple sugars and polysaccharides

Monosaccharides are simple sugars; they are the

monomers that make up larger carbohydrates.

Ribose, glucose, and fructose are examples of monosaccharides.

Section 2.5 Access the text alternative for slide images.

Figure 2.19
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 Carbohydrates are synthesized and broken down

Dehydration synthesis binds two monosaccharides

together, forming a disaccharide. Sucrose is a disaccharide.

Hydrolysis separates disaccharides into monosaccharides.

Section 2.5 Figure 2.19

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 Polysaccharides are long chains of carbohydrates

• Cellulose: structure
• Starch: energy
• Glycogen: energy

Photos: (c, cellulose): BioPhoto Associates/Science Source; (c, starch): Dr. Keith
Wheeler/Science Source; (c, glycogen): CNRI/Science Source

Section 2.5 Figure 2.19

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 Proteins have many different structures and functions

Proteins are the

“workers” of cells; they
do almost everything.
• Proteins like
collagen create
cellular structures.
• Proteins like actin
and myosin produce
muscle contractions.

Section 2.5 Access the text alternative for slide images.

Figure 2.22
© McGraw Hill, LLC 69
 Proteins are made of amino acids

• The monomers of
proteins are amino
acids.
• There are 20
different amino
acids in nature.
• All amino acids have
the same general
structure.

Section 2.5 Figure 2.20

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 Each amino acid has its own chemical and physical
properties

The 20 different amino acids have 20 different R-groups.

• Some are polar, some are nonpolar, some are charged.
• Some are small, some are medium, some are bulky.

These properties in
turn determine the
properties of the
protein.

Section 2.5 Figure 2.20

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 Proteins are synthesized and broken down

Dehydration synthesis binds two amino acids together, forming a

dipeptide, shown below. A long chain of amino acids is called a
polypeptide.

Hydrolysis separates dipeptides and polypeptides into individual amino

acids.

Section 2.5 Figure 2.20

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 Polypeptides fold up into proteins

• A chain of amino acids

folds into a unique 3-D
shape to become a
protein.
• The function of a
protein depends on its
shape, or tertiary
structure.
• Denatured proteins lose
their shape.

Section 2.5 Figure 2.23

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 Proteins: Primary and secondary structure

Section 2.5 Access the text alternative for slide images.

Figure 2.21
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 Proteins: Tertiary and quaternary structure

Section 2.5 Access the text alternative for slide images.

Figure 2.21
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 Nucleic acids carry genetic information

• Nucleic acids include

DNA and RNA.
• The primary
structure of each
protein in a cell is
determined by the
nucleic acids.

Section 2.5 Access the text alternative for slide images.

Figure 2.25
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 The monomers of nucleic acids are nucleotides

There are five

different possible
nitrogenous bases.

The three parts of a nucleotide are a phosphate group, a

five-carbon sugar, and a nitrogenous base.

Section 2.5 Figure 2.24

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 Different nitrogenous bases are found in nucleotides

DNA and RNA both incorporate Only DNA uses Only RNA
adenine, cytosine, and guanine. thymine. uses uracil.

This creates five different types of nucleotides.

Section 2.5 Access the text alternative for slide images.

Figure 2.24
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 Nucleic acids are synthesized and broken down

Dehydration synthesis binds two nucleotides together,

forming a dipeptide, shown below. DNA and RNA are long
chains of nucleotides.

Hydrolysis separates nucleic acids into individual

nucleotides.
Section 2.5 Figure 2.24
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 Lipids are hydrophobic molecules

• All lipids are

hydrophobic.
• Different groups of
lipids include
molecules with
varying structure and
function.
• Unlike carbohydrates,
proteins, and nucleic
acids, lipids are NOT
built from chains of
monomers.

Section 2.5 Access the text alternative for slide images.

Figures 2.26, 2.28
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 Lipids are divided into different classes

Steroids are
Triglycerides another class of
(fats and oils) lipids. They have a
are energy- four-ring structure.
rich. We need
them for long-
term energy
storage.

Section 2.5 Figures 2.26, 2.28

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 Triglycerides are fats and oils

Triglycerides are formed by covalently attaching three fatty

acid molecules to a glycerol molecule.

• Dehydration
synthesis links the
fatty acids to the
glycerol, forming a
triglyceride.
• Hydrolysis separates
fatty acids from
glycerol.

Section 2.5 Figure 2.26

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 Some fatty acids are saturated

All carbons of a
saturated fatty acid
are bonded to four
other atoms. This
makes the fatty acid
have a straight shape.

Section 2.5 Access the text alternative for slide images.

Figure 2.27
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 Some fatty acids are unsaturated

An unsaturated fatty
acid contains at least
one double bond,
which gives the fatty
acid a bent shape.

Section 2.5 Figure 2.27

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 Saturation gives triglycerides different properties

Bends in the
unsaturated fatty
acids prevent them
from packing close
together. Unsaturated
fats, like oils, are
therefore liquids at
room temperature.

Section 2.5 Figure 2.27

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 Steroids are a second class of lipids

Steroids are
important lipid
molecules.
Cholesterol
regulates the
fluidity of animal
cell membranes; it
is also used to
synthesize many
sex hormones.

Section 2.5 Access the text alternative for slide images.

Figure 2.28
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 Clicker Question #5

Which monomer is incorrectly paired?

A. Protein: monopeptide
B. Carbohydrate: monosaccharide
C. Nucleic acid: nucleotide
D. Lipid: no monomer

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 Clicker Question #5, Solution

Which monomer is incorrectly paired?

A. Protein: monopeptide
Correct answer is amino acid

© McGraw Hill, LLC 88

 2.5 Mastering Concepts

Chemical warfare in ants: A tawny crazy ant’s venom

detoxifies a fire ant’s venom.

Propose an experiment to test the hypothesis that formic

acid’s low pH denatures the enzymes in fire ant venom.
Access the text alternative for slide images.
Figure 2C
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 Life depends on chemistry

The properties of the

organic molecules making
up our cells are
determined by their atoms
and chemical bonds.
Without these molecules,
life would come to a halt.

Section 2.5 Access the text alternative for slide images.

Figure 2.30
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