UNIT-2

Medium Access Control (MAC), Design Issues and Goals, Classification,

Contention free protocols, IEEE 802.11 standards, 802.15, HIPERLAN
Distributed MAC Protocols

• Most distributed MAC protocols are based on the principle of carrier

sensing & collision avoidance (CSMA/CA)
• Hidden terminals play very dominant role in CSMA/CA based protocols
a)Collisions that occur at the destination may not be heard by the
sender
b)Therefore receiver has to send some kind of feedback to sender
Contention-based protocol

Contention-based protocol. A protocol that allows multiple users to share the same
spectrum by defining the events that must occur when two or more transmitters
attempt to simultaneously access the same channel and establishing rules by which
a transmitter provides reasonable opportunities for other transmitters to operate.
Such a protocol may consist of procedures for initiating new transmissions,
procedures for determining the state of the channel (available or unavailable), and
procedures for managing retransmissions in the event of a busy channel.
Contention-based protocols shall fall into one of two categories:
(1) An unrestricted contention-based protocol is one which can avoid co-frequency
interference with devices using all other types of contention-based protocols.
(2) A restricted contention-based protocol is one that does not qualify as
unrestricted.
• Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance for Wireless (MACAW) is a medium access
control (MAC) protocol broadly utilized in ad hoc network systems. Besides, it is the
establishment of numerous other MAC protocols utilized in wireless sensor systems
(WSN).
• The IEEE 802.11 RTS/CTS system is received from this protocol. It utilizes RTS-CTS-DS-DATA-
ACK frame succession for moving information, once in a while went before by a RTS-RRTS
frame arrangement, in view to give answer for the concealed node problem. Although
protocol dependent on MACAW, are S-MAC, MACAW doesn’t utilize carrier sense.

Features :
• The problem in MACA that if there are two sender and two receiver A, B, C and D
respectively.
• If B has send RTS to C and D at the same time and but only send data upon receiving CTS
from C.
• Now A wants to send data to D but will not able to send because it will sense that D is
currently busy and will increase the backoff counter (for how much time A will wait before
re-transmitting) value by twice because of which it will get stuck in a loop until the D gets
free.
• Blockage data trade between pairwise stations, prompting better clog control and backoff
approaches
Working :
•This problem is solved by Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance for Wireless protocol
because it introduces packet containing current transmission nodes’s backoff counter value
to be copied into the other sender node. This will reduce the wait time very significantly.
•MACAW also introduce two new data frame DS(Data-Sending) which provides
information about the length of the incoming DATA frame and RRTS(Request for Request
to Send) which acts as a proxy to RTS.
Advantages over MACA :

•The sender detects the bearer to see and transmits a RTS (Request To Send) if no
close by station transmits a RTS.
•The fairness of MACAW is much better than MACA.
•It handle hidden and exposed node problem better than MACA.
•ACK signal is send to the MAC layer, after every data frame.
•It also incorporate carrier detecting to additionally diminish collision
•Irregular pause and re-attempt transmission at each message level, rather than at
each node level.
 Example :
A successful transmission in case of MACAW will look
like :
•RTS from A to B
•CTS from B to A
•DS from A to B
•DATA frame from A to B
•ACK from B to A.

A successful transmission in case of

MACAW with RRTS will look like :
•RTS from A to B
•RRTS from B to A
•RTS from A to B
•CTS from B to A
•DS from A to B
•DATA frame from A to B
•ACK from B to A.
 IEEE 802.11
• IEEE 802.11 refers to the set of
standards that define communication for
wireless LANs (wireless local area
networks, or WLANs).
• The technology behind 802.11 is
branded to consumers as Wi-Fi.
• In1999, the 802.11b specification was
released. This provided raw data rates of
11 Mbps, and used the 2.4GHz ISM
band: the first products were released in
2000
802.11 Protocol Frequency Band Used Bandwidth Data Rate per Stream

n 2.4-GHz 20 MHz 7.2 mbps

Up to 4 streams of data 5-GHz 14.4 mbps, 21.7 mbps
28.9 mbps, 43.3 mbps
57.8 mbps, 65 mbps,
72.2 mbps
15 mbps, 30 mbps,
40 MHz 45 mbps, 60 mbps,
90 mbps, 120 mbps,
135 mbps, 150 mbps

g 2.4-GHz 20 MHz 6, 9, 12, 18, 24, 36, 48,

1 stream of data 54
b 2.4-GHz 20 MHz 1 mbps, 2 mbps, 5.5
1 stream of data mbps, 11 mbps
a 5-GHz 20 MHz 6 mbps, 9 mbps, 12
1 stream of data 3.7-GHz mbps, 18 mbps, 24
mbps, 36 mbps, 48
mbps, 54 mbps
Wi-Fi Generations

IEEE Maximum Radio

Generation Standard Link rate Adopted Frequency
(Mbit/s) (GHz)[3]
Wi‑Fi 7 802.11be 40000 TBA 2.4/5/6
Wi‑Fi 6E 2020 2.4/5/6
802.11ax 600 to 9608
Wi‑Fi 6 2019 2.4/5
Wi‑Fi 5 802.11ac 433 to 6933 2014 5
Wi‑Fi 4 802.11n 72 to 600 2008 2.4/5
(Wi-Fi 3*) 802.11g 6 to 54 2003 2.4
(Wi-Fi 2*) 802.11a 6 to 54 1999 5
(Wi-Fi 1*) 802.11b 1 to 11 1999 2.4
(Wi-Fi 0*) 802.11 1 to 2 1997 2
IEEE 802.15
• IEEE 802.15 is the IEEE working group for Wireless Personal Area Networks (WPANs).
• The working group is developing standards for short- range communications of devices within a personal
operating space.
• A personal wireless network consists of mobile devices such as a handheld or pocket computer, PDA, mobile
phone and wireless microphone.
• IEEE 802.15 consists of a number of working groups:
a) 802.15.1(Standardization Task Group)
Standardization of Bluetooth
b) 802.15.2 (Recommended practice)
Coexistence of WPAN and WLAN devices
c) 802.15.3 (High Rate WPAN)
High-rate (>20 Mbit/s) WPANs
IEEE 802.15.3a is a standard for UWB devices
IEEE 802.15.3c is a standard for gigabit wireless (> 2 Gbit/s) in the 60 GHz band
d) 802.15.4 (Low Rate WPAN)
Low-rate WPANs (up to 200 kbit/s); Standardization of ZigBee
• IEEE 802.15 is the working group for WSNs, or wireless specialty networks, such as
wireless personal area networks (WPANs), Bluetooth, Internet of Things networks, mesh
networks, body area networks, wearables, visible light communications, among others.
• IEEE 802.15.1: Wireless Medium Access Control (MAC) and Physical Layer (PHY)
specifications for Wireless Personal Area Networks (WPAN)
• IEEE 802.15.2: Coexistence of Wireless Personal Area Networks with Other Wireless
Devices Operating in Unlicensed Frequency Bands
• IEEE 802.15.3: High Data Rate Wireless Multi-Media Networks
• IEEE 802.15.4: Low-Rate Wireless Networks
• IEEE 802.15.5: Mesh Topology Capability in Wireless Personal Area Networks (WPANs)
• IEEE 802.15.6: Wireless Body Area Networks
• IEEE 802.15.7: Visible Light Communication, Short-Range Optical Wireless
Communications
• IEEE 802.15.8: Peer Aware Communications
• IEEE 802.15.9: Key Management Protocol
• IEEE 802.15.10: Layer 2 Routing, Practice for Routing Packets in IEEE 802.15.4
Dynamically Changing Wireless Networks
802.15.1 (Bluetooth)
 ZigBee Protocol Stack
The 802.15.4 standard only defines the PHY and MAC layers. The ZigBee standard extends 802.15.4 to
provide Bluetooth-like interoperability features. (Though the term "ZigBee" is often used interchangeably
with "802.15.4”
 HIPERLAN (High-Performance Radio Local Area Network)

• A high-performance local area network (HIPERLAN) is an alternative wireless LAN

standard to the IEEE 802.11. It is one of four standards (HIPERLAN 1 through 4)
specified by the European telecommunications standards institute (ETSI) to link
interoperable technologies from different locations instead of cable.
• HIPERLAN uses cellular-based data networks to connect to an ATM backbone.
• The main idea behind HIPERLAN is to provide an infrastructure or ad-hoc wireless
system with a small radius.
• HIPERLAN emerged in 1991 with the goal of achieving higher data rates than the
802.11 standard. It was approved in 1996. A second version was introduceced in
2000. This version is designed as a fast wireless connection and can be used with
various networks, such as UMTS backbone, ATM, and IP networks.
• HiperLAN/2 can also be used as a home network and supports a data rate of up to
54 Mbps.
Components of a HIPERLAN include:

• Physical Layer: This layer provides the standard functions, including radio frequency
functions.
• Link Adaptation: This standard allows the access point to convey information in an
uplink or downlink direction. The HIPERLAN physical layer also specifies some link
adaptation algorithms to be used.
• Data Link Control (DLC) Layer: This layer includes the Media Acces Control (MAC),
Radio Link Control (RLC), Dynamic Frequency Selection (DFS) and Error Control (EC)
protocols.
• Convergence Layer: Its basic function is to provide the HIPERLAN DLC and physical
access to other data networks.
HIPERLAN requirements---
Short range - 50m
Low mobility - 1.4m/s
Networks with and without infrastructure
Support isochronous traffic
audio 32kbps, 10ns latency
video 2Mbps, 100ns latency
Support asynchronous traffic
data 10Mbps, immediate access
 New HIPERLAN standards
HIPERLAN uses cellular-
based data networks to
connect to an ATM
backbone. The main
idea behind HIPERLAN
is to provide an
infrastructure or ad-hoc
wireless with low
mobility and a small
radius. HIPERLAN
supports isochronous
traffic with low latency.
The HiperLAN standard
family has four
different versions.
https://www.brainkart.com/article/HIPERLAN(high-performance-local-area-
network)_9933/
Contention based protocol

• A contention-based protocol (CBP) is a communications protocol for operating

wireless telecommunication equipment that allows many users to use the same
radio channel without pre-coordination. The "listen before talk" operating
procedure in IEEE 802.11 is the most well known contention-based protocol.

• A protocol that allows multiple users to share the same spectrum by defining the
events that must occur when two or more transmitters attempt to simultaneously
access the same channel and establishing rules by which a transmitter provides
reasonable opportunities for other transmitters to operate. Such a protocol may
consist of procedures for initiating new transmissions, procedures for
determining the state of the channel (available or unavailable), and procedures
for managing retransmissions in the event of a busy channel.
Contention-based protocol-- A protocol that allows multiple users to share the
same spectrum by defining the events that must occur when two or more
transmitters attempt to simultaneously access the same channel and establishing
rules by which a transmitter provides reasonable opportunities for other
transmitters to operate. Such a protocol may consist of procedures for initiating new
transmissions, procedures for determining the state of the channel (available or
unavailable), and procedures for managing retransmissions in the event of a busy
channel. Contention-based protocols shall fall into one of two categories:
• (1) An unrestricted contention-based protocol is one which can avoid co-frequency
interference with devices using all other types of contention-based protocols.
• (2) A restricted contention-based protocol is one that does not qualify as
unrestricted.
Contention free protocols
Almost collisions can be avoided in CSMA/CD. They can still occur during the
contention period. The collision during contention period adversely affects the
system performance, this happens when the cable is long and length of packet are
short. This problem becomes serious as fiber optics network come into use.
Protocols that resolve the collision during the contention period.
• Bit-map Protocol
• Binary Countdown
• Limited Contention Protocols
• The Adaptive Tree Walk Protocol

Pure and slotted Aloha, CSMA and CSMA/CD are Contention based Protocols
Collision Free Protocols:
• Pay constant overhead to achieve performance guarantee
• Good when network load is high
A) Bit-map Protocol:
Bit map protocol is collision free Protocol in In bitmap protocol method, each
contention period consists of exactly N slots. if any station has to send frame, then it
transmits a 1 bit in the respective slot. For example if station 2 has a frame to send,
it transmits a 1 bit during the second slot.
In general, Station 1 Announce the fact that it has a frame questions by inserting a 1
bit into slot 1. In this way, each station has complete knowledge of which station
wishes to transmit. There will never be any collisions because everyone agrees on
who goes next. Protocols like this in which the desire to transmit is broadcasting for
the actual transmission are called Reservation Protocols.
B) Binary Countdown:
Binary countdown protocol is used to overcome the overhead 1 bit per binary
station. In binary countdown, binary station addresses are used. A station
wanting to use the channel broadcast its address as binary bit string starting
with the high order bit. All addresses are assumed of the same length. Here, we
will see the example to illustrate the working of the binary countdown.
In this method, different station addresses are ORed together who decide the
priority of transmitting. If these stations 0001, 1001, 1100, 1011 all are trying to
seize the channel for transmission. All the station at first broadcast their most
significant address bit that is 0, 1, 1, 1 respectively. The most significant bits are
ORed together. Station 0001 see the 1MSB in another station addresses and
knows that a higher numbered station is competing for the channel, so it gives
up for the current round.
Other three stations 1001, 1100, 1011 continue. The next bit is 1 at station 1100,
swiss station 1011 and 1001 give up. Then station 110 starts transmitting a
frame, after which another bidding cycle starts.
Limited Contention Protocols:

• Collision based protocols (pure and slotted ALOHA, CSMA/CD) are good
when the network load is low.
• Collision free protocols (bitmap, binary Countdown) are good when
load is high.
• How about combining their advantages
Behave like the ALOHA scheme under light load
Behave like the bitmap scheme under heavy load.
Adaptive Tree Walk Protocol:

• partition the group of station and limit the contention for each slot.
• Under light load, everyone can try for each slot like aloha
• Under heavy load, only a group can try for each slot
• How do we do it:
treat every stations as the leaf of a binary tree
first slot (after successful transmission), all stations
can try to get the slot(under the root node).
if no conflict, fine
in case of conflict, only nodes under a subtree get to try for the next
one. (depth first search)
Slot-0: C*, E*, F*, H* (all nodes
under node 0 can try which are
going to send), conflict
Slot-1: C* (all nodes under node
1can try}, C sends
Slot-2: E*, F*, H*(all nodes under
node 2 can try}, conflict
Slot-3: E*, F* (all nodes under
node 5 can try to send), conflict
Slot-4: E* (all nodes under E can
try), E sends
Slot-5: F* (all nodes under F can
try), F sends
Slot-6: H* (all nodes under node
6 can try to send), H sends.
Key Stateless Stateful
Stateless Protocol is a network protocol in Stateful Protocol is a network protocol in which if
which Client send request to the server and client send a request to the server then it expects
Definition server response back as per the given state. some kind of response, in case of no response
then it resend the request.

HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol), UDP FTP (File Transfer Protocol), Telnet.
Examples (User Datagram Protocol), DNS (Domain
Name System)

Server The Stateless Protocol does not need the The Stateful Protocol necessitates that the server
Restriction server to save any session information. saves the status and session data.
The server and client in a stateless system In Stateful, the server and the client are tightly
Dependency are loosely connected and can behave bound.
independently.
Server design is simple to implement. It is Server design is comparatively complex and it is
Design very easy to implement a Stateless Protocol very difficult to implement a Stateful Protocol on
on the Internet. the Internet.
After a crash, a failed server can be readily A server must store session information as well as
Crash Proof resumed. other details. It's challenging to deal with a crash.
Transactions are processed much more In comparison, the server is slow.
Transactions quickly by the server.