INTRODUCTION TO

ETHICS
Morality, having some kind of system of values,
deciding what is right or wrong for oneself.

Ethics, The focus of ethics is indeed the notion of

right and wrong, but what it attempts to explain is
why people make certain moral decisions, how we
create moral systems which tell us how to act;
some ethical theories also aim to tell us what
moral standards we should choose and how we
could achieve the good life.
MORAL STANDARDS vs. NON-
MORAL STANDARDS
Moral standards - rules people have about
the kinds of actions they believe are morally
right and wrong, as well as the values they
place on the kinds of objects they believe are
morally good and morally bad.
Non-moral standards - rules that are
unrelated to moral or ethical considerations.
Either these standards are not necessarily
linked to morality or by nature lack ethical
sense. Basic examples of non-moral
standards include rules of etiquette, fashion
standards, rules in games, and various house
rules.
six characteristics of moral
standards
1. Moral standards involve serious wrongs or
significant benefits.

Moral standards deal with matters which can

seriously impact, that is, injure or benefit human
beings. It is not the case with many non-moral
standards. For instance, following or violating
some basketball rules may matter in basketball
games but does not necessarily affect one’s life or
wellbeing.
2. Moral standards ought to be preferred to other
values.

Moral standards have overriding character or

hegemonic authority. If a moral standard states
that a person has the moral obligation to do
something, then he/she is supposed to do that
even if it conflicts with other non-moral standards,
and even with self-interest.
3. Moral standards are not established by authority
figures.

Moral standards are not invented, formed, or

generated by authoritative bodies or persons
such as nations’ legislative bodies. Ideally instead,
these values ought to be considered in the process
of making laws. In principle therefore, moral
standards cannot be changed nor nullified by the
decisions of an authoritative body.
4. Moral standards have the trait of
universalizability.

Everyone should live up to moral standards. To be

more accurate, however, it entails that moral
principles must apply to all who are in a relevantly
similar situation. If one judges that act A is
morally right for a certain person P, then it is
morally right for anybody relevantly like P.
5. Moral standards are based on impartial
considerations.

Moral standards do not evaluate standards based

on the interests of a certain person or group, but
one that goes beyond personal interests to a
universal standpoint in which each person’s
interests are impartially counted as equal.
6. Moral standards are associated with special
emotions and vocabulary.

Prescriptivity indicates the practical or action-

guiding nature of moral standards. These moral
standards are generally put forth as injunction or
imperatives (such as, ‘Do not kill,’ ‘Do no
unnecessary harm,’ and ‘Love your neighbor’).
ETHICAL THEORIES
Ethical theories provide frameworks for evaluating
actions and making moral decisions.

• Consequentialism
• Deontology
• Virtue Ethics
Consequentialism: Evaluates actions based on
their outcomes. Utilitarianism is a key
consequentialist theory, focusing on maximizing
overall happiness.
Consequentialism introduces us to the idea that
the morality of an action is determined by its
outcomes. One notable theory within this
framework is **utilitarianism**, which encourages
us to maximize overall happiness or utility.
However, critics point out challenges in accurately
quantifying happiness and the potential for
overlooking individual rights and justice in the
pursuit of collective well-being.
Deontology: Emphasizes the inherent rightness or
wrongness of actions based on principles or rules,
like Kant's categorical imperative.
Deontology emphasizes the intrinsic nature of
actions. It asserts that certain actions are
inherently right or wrong, regardless of their
consequences. Immanuel Kant's **categorical
imperative** is a central concept in deontological
ethics. This principle prompts us to act according
to rules that could be universally applied,
respecting human dignity and autonomy. Yet,
applying deontological principles might lead to
rigid outcomes that overlook the complexity of
real-world situations.
Consequentialism vs. Deontology
(Kill 1 to save 5)
Virtue Ethics: Focuses on developing virtuous
character traits that lead to morally good actions.
Aristotle's virtue ethics is an example.
Virtue Ethics takes a different approach by
focusing on character development. Rather than
solely assessing actions, it encourages cultivating
virtuous traits such as courage, honesty, and
compassion. Aristotle's virtue ethics teaches us
that by striving for these virtues, we naturally
make morally sound choices. However, critics
argue that virtue ethics can be culturally biased
and might not provide clear guidance in situations
where virtues conflict.
As we explore these theories, it becomes apparent
that each has strengths and limitations. Ethical
decision-making often involves a delicate
balancing act, where we consider the
consequences, duties, and virtues associated with
our choices. Understanding these ethical
frameworks equips us with the tools to engage in
thoughtful reflection when facing moral dilemmas,
encouraging us to choose actions that align with
our values and principles.
ETHICAL DILEMMAS
WHAT IS DILEMMA?
A dilemma is a difficult situation in which you have
to choose between two or more alternatives.

He was faced with the dilemma of whether or not

to return to his country.
Ethical dilemmas are at the heart of moral
decision-making. They occur when we face
situations where different ethical principles or
values conflict, making it challenging to determine
the best course of action. The process of resolving
ethical dilemmas requires careful consideration
and a thoughtful examination of the competing
factors involved.
In ethical conflicts, it's essential to recognize the
complexity of the situation. Often, there isn't a
clear "right" or "wrong" choice, but rather a
spectrum of options with varying ethical
implications. This complexity arises from the fact
that ethical principles can sometimes pull us in
different directions, each with its own set of moral
justifications.
A common example of an ethical dilemma is the
"trolley problem." Imagine you're at a lever that
can switch the path of an out-of-control trolley. On
one track, there's one person who will be hit if you
don't switch, and on the other track, there are five
people. Whichever choice you make, there will be
consequences, and both options involve the
potential harm of individuals.
Resolving ethical dilemmas often involves a
process of ethical reasoning where you consider
the underlying values, principles, and potential
consequences of each choice. This process isn't
always straightforward and may require weighing
the importance of different principles against one
another.
Ethical dilemmas arise when competing values or
principles make it challenging to choose the right
course of action.

•Moral Conflicts: Situations where different ethical

principles clash.

•Balancing Act: Evaluating competing interests

and values to make an ethical decision.
Moral conflicts arise when individuals or groups
have differing beliefs or values regarding what is
right or wrong in a particular situation. These
conflicts can occur in various contexts, such as
personal relationships, professional settings, or
broader societal issues.
• Ethical Dilemmas: These are situations where
individuals are faced with a choice between two
or more morally conflicting options. For
instance, a doctor might face an ethical dilemma
when deciding whether to disclose sensitive
medical information to a patient's family.
• Cultural Differences: Different cultures often
have distinct moral frameworks and values.
When people from diverse backgrounds interact,
conflicts may arise due to varying perspectives
on what is considered morally acceptable
behavior.
• Religious Disagreements: Religious beliefs often
dictate what is considered right or wrong for
individuals who adhere to a particular faith.
Conflicts can emerge when people from different
religious backgrounds have conflicting moral
perspectives.
• Political Debates: Politics is deeply intertwined
with questions of morality, such as issues of
justice, equality, and individual rights.
Disagreements in political ideologies can often
be traced back to differing moral foundations.
• Personal Values vs. Professional Obligations:
Individuals may face moral conflicts in their
professional lives when they must adhere to
certain organizational rules or standards that
may conflict with their personal moral beliefs.
• Social Justice Issues: Disagreements about
issues like discrimination, inequality, and human
rights can be deeply rooted in conflicting moral
perspectives.
• Medical Ethics: Healthcare professionals,
patients, and families can find themselves in
moral conflicts over issues like end-of-life care,
medical experimentation, or allocation of limited
resources.
• Environmental Ethics: Debates about how to
address environmental challenges often involve
differing opinions on what actions are morally
justified for the sake of the planet and future
generations.
Resolving moral conflicts can be complex and may
require open communication, empathy,
compromise, and, in some cases, ethical
frameworks or principles to guide decision-
making. It's important to acknowledge that not all
moral conflicts have clear-cut solutions, and
finding a resolution may involve navigating through
shades of gray.
Resolving moral conflicts can be complex and may
require open communication, empathy,
compromise, and, in some cases, ethical
frameworks or principles to guide decision-
making. It's important to acknowledge that not all
moral conflicts have clear-cut solutions, and
finding a resolution may involve navigating through
shades of gray.