Metal-casting

Processes &
Equipment
 Introduction
Casting is an oldest Manufacturing Stone mold in
Process in which parts are produced by single piece
pouring molten metal/or alloy into a
desired shape cavity and allow them to 4000 B.C
solidify to obtained final product.
The final product is taken out from the
mold by breaking the mold or taking the
mold apart.
The solidified object is called casting. 2000 B.C

The process is also known as founding

Introduction
 Think about a car:

Introduction

• It has a lot of parts manufactured and

assembled together to form a complete
assembly (in the form of a car)
• Cast iron or Aluminum alloy engine block,
Aluminium alloy rims, crank shaft
Introduction
Introduction
 4 cylinders  Casting process
 Sand Casting

6 cylinders

 The casted engine block is

finally machined to get the
desired surface finish and
cooling passages.

Engine block
 Introduction

 Cast crankshaft
which was
machined to final
dimensions
 Made from the
process of forging
(steel) and Nodular
cast iron (casting)
 Advantages

Casting is most often selected over other manufacturing methods because:

• Casting can produce complex shapes and can incorporate internal
cavities or hollow sections
• Very large parts can be produced in one piece
• Casting can utilize materials that are difficult or uneconomical to process
by other means, such as hard metals that are difficult to machine or
plastically deform
• The process can be competitive with other manufacturing processes
 Fundamentals of Metal Casting

• First used about 6000 years ago, casting continues to be an important

manufacturing process for producing very small, as well as very large
and complex, parts.
This section will cover:
• Solidification of molten metals, including the differences between
solidification of pure metals and alloys.
• Fluid flow in casting
• Heat transfer and shrinkage of castings
• Causes of porosity in castings and common methods of reducing them to
improve cast-metal properties.
 Casting Terminology

Crucible
Pouring cup Rise
r
Sprue Cope

Parting
line

Runne Clamps
Metallic Flask r Cast metal in cavity Core
made by using pattern
Drag

Sand Mold
 Fundamentals of Metal Casting

 As with all other manufacturing processes, an understanding of the

underlying science is essential for the production of good quality and
economical parts, and for establishing proper techniques for mold
design and casting practice.
Important considerations in casting operations are:
 Flow of the molten metal into the mold cavity, and design of gating
systems or pathways for molten metal to fill the cavity
 Solidification and cooling of the metal in the mold
 Influence of the mold material
 Fundamentals of Metal Casting

 This section describes relationships among the many factors involved

in casting.
 The flow of molten metal into the mold cavity is first described, in
terms of mold design and fluid-flow characteristics. Solidification and
cooling of metals in the mold are affected by several factors, including
the metallurgical and thermal properties of the metal.
 The type of mold also has an important influence, because it affects the
rate of cooling.
 This part concludes with a description of the factors influencing
defect formation in castings.
 Solidification of Metals

 After molten metal is poured into a mold, a sequence of events takes

place during solidification and cooling of the metal to ambient
temperature.

 These events greatly influence the size, shape, uniformity, and

chemical composition of the grains formed throughout the casting,
which, in turn, influence the overall properties of the casting.

 The significant factors affecting these events are the type of metal cast,
the thermal properties of both the metal and the mold, the geometric
relationship between volume and surface area of the casting, and the
shape of the mold.
 Melting and Pouring Temperature

• This temp difference between M.P & P.T is called Superheating

Sr. No. Metal/Alloy Melting temp. (oC) Pouring temp (oC)

1 Grey cast iron 1380 1520-1590
2 Cast steel 1480 1600-1720
3 Copper (Cu) 1083 1140-1200
4 Nickel (Ni) 1453 1500-1590
5 Aluminium (Al) 660 720-750

6 Zinc (Zn) 420 450-480

7 Lead (Pd) 327 350-390
Pure Metal Solidification
 Solidification in
Alloys Freezing range = TL − TS.

Dendrites have three-

dimensional arms and
branches (secondary
arms), which
eventually interlock.
The study of dendritic
structures, although
complex, is important,
because such
structures can
contribute to
detrimental factors,
such as compositional
variations,
segregation, and
microporosity within a
cast part.
 Solidification in Alloys
• For alloys, a short freezing range generally involves a temperature
difference of less than 50◦C, and for a long freezing range, more than
110◦C.
• Ferrous castings generally have narrow mushy zones, whereas aluminum
and magnesium alloys have wide mushy zones. Consequently, these
alloys are in a mushy state throughout most of their solidification process.
• Slow cooling rates or long local solidification times, result in coarse
dendritic structures, with large spacing between dendrite arms.
• For higher cooling rates or for short local solidification times, the
structure becomes finer, with smaller dendrite arm spacing.
• The structures developed and the resulting grain size have an influence
on the properties of the casting.
• A criterion describing the kinetics of the liquid–solid interface is the ratio
G/R, where G is the thermal gradient and R is the rate at which the
interface moves.
Structure–property Relationships
 Structure–property Relationships
• The compositions of dendrites and the liquid metal are given by the
phase diagram of the particular alloy.
• Under the normally higher cooling rates encountered in practice,
cored dendrites are formed.
• These dendrites have a surface composition different from that at
their centers, a difference referred to as concentration gradient.
• Normal Segregation, Inverse Segregation, Micro and Macro
segregation.
• A typical cast structure of a solid–solution alloy, with an inner zone
of equiaxed grains.
• This inner zone can be extended throughout the casting by adding
an inoculant (nucleating agent) to the alloy. The inoculant induces
nucleation of the grains throughout the liquid metal
(heterogeneous nucleation).
 Structure–property Relationships
• Because of the presence of thermal gradients in a solidifying mass
of liquid metal, and due to gravity and the resultant density
differences, convection has a strong influence on the structures
developed.
• Convection involves heat transfer by the movement of matter, and
in a casting it usually is associated with the flow of the liquid metal.

• Convection promotes the formation of an outer chill zone, refines

grain size, and accelerates the transition from columnar to equiaxed
grains.

• The dendrite arms are not particularly strong and can be broken up
by agitation or mechanical vibration in the early stages of
solidification.
Fluid Flow
 Gating System
Pouring basin, Sprue, Runner and gate design
 Gating system

Pouring basin

Casting

Sprue
Ingate
Runner
Runner
extension

Sprue well
 Gating System
The Basic elements of a gating system are;
a. A pouring cup or a pouring basin
The main function of a pouring cup is to minimize splash & turbulence and promote
entry of clean metal into the mold cavity.
b. Sprue
Sprue is the part of the gating system which is used to feed the molten metal from
pouring basin to the runner.
C. Sprue well
A well is some time made at the bottom of the sprue to accommodate initial metal splash
and to make sure the metal enters the runner without turbulence.
d. Runner
Runner is used to connect the bottom of the sprue and gate. In order to avoid sand
erosion, the flow should be Laminar. The length of the runner depends upon the length
of the casting.
 Gating System
E. Runner extension
Sometimes the length of the runner is extended in order to trap non-metallic inclusions
and oxides which further make sure the clean entry of the molten metal in the mold
cavity.

F. Gates
Are used to feed the molten metal in the mold cavity

G. Riser/or Feeder
A riser is a reservoir where the metal stays liquid while casting is freezing. The riser thus
provides feed metal which flows from the riser to the casting to accommodate shrinkage
which takes place in the casting as it cools from liquid to solid.
 Gating System
Pouring basin  The grey color parts shows the basic elements of a gating system
 The red color plate is the actual casting

Runner extension

Runner
Riser
Sprue

Gate Casting
Gating System (Multiple gates)
Pouring basin

 There are multiple gates for the entrance of Multiple gates

molten in the mold cavity. Runner

Sprue Riser

casting
Filling vs Feeding System

Filling system Feeding system

Actual casting
 Features of a good gating system
Gating system is a conduit through which the molten metal must pass and fill
the mold cavity, where it get solidified to final casting shape
• Economy of size. Maximum casing yield and minimum grinding costs.
• The filling of mold cavity rapidly (pouring time, tP) without requiring high
pouring temperature.
• The delivery of only liquid metal into the cavity not other phases such as slag,
oxide, sand inclusion, air or other gases
• Prevent aspiration of air or mold gases into the metal stream
• The elimination of surface turbulence
• Ease of removal (easily remove by saw or abrasive wheel)
• The gating system can be pressurized/or unpressurized (unpressurized system
is preferable)
 Fluid flow
 The problems such as gas contamination, inclusion of dross or slag and
aspiration of gas are the factors that must be considered while designing a
gating system.
 These problems are associated with fluid flow and the laws governing fluid
flows must be studied to improve gating design.
• Optimized design of a gating system is based upon certain basic principles of
fluid flow i.e.
 Bernoulli's theorem
 Law of continuity
 Reynolds number
 Application of Bernoulli’s theorem in gating
system
Bernoulli's theorem states that, the sum of the potential energy, kinetic
energy, pressure energy, and frictional energy of a flowing liquid is equal to a
constant. The theorem can be expressed as;
h
(1)

h is the height of the liquid (meters)

 Potential head h
P is the static pressure in liquid (N/m2)
 Pressure head,
is the density of the liquid (Kg/m3)
 Velocity head,
g is the acceleration due to gravity (10
 Frictional loss of
m/s2)
head F
V is the velocity (m/s)
F is the friction loss per unit weight, and
K is a constant
Bernoulli’s Theorem in Gating System

The potential energy can be considered a maximum as the metal enters in

the pouring basin. This energy then rapidly changed into kinetic or velocity
energy and pressure energy as the metal passes through the mold system.

The velocity is high when the

pressure is low, and vice versa

Fluid exerting pressure

on the mold walls which
is accounted in pressure
head

Schematic illustrating the application of Bernoulli's theorem to a gating system

 Gating design (Calculation of velocities)
Note: In all these calculations no frictional losses are consider
Pouring basin The system is maintained at atmospheric pressure.
1 At point 1 P1 = Patm = 0 Applying B.T between point 1 and 2
hPB h1= hs+ hPB
2 2 2
At point 2 P2 = Patm = 0 𝑃1 𝑉 1 𝑃2 𝑉 2
h 1+ + = h2 + +
h2 = hS 𝜌 𝑔 2𝑔 𝜌 𝑔 2𝑔
ht hS Sprue As the system is fully filled the velocity v1
is approaching to zero i.e., V1= 0
2
Runner 𝑉2
(h ¿ ¿ 𝑠+h 𝑃𝐵 )+ 0+ 0=h 𝑠 +0+ ¿
Datum 3 Casting 2𝑔
2
𝑣 2= 2 g h𝑃𝐵
At point 3 P3 = Patm = 0
h3 = 0
A basis for calculations
𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡=𝑉 2=√ 2 𝑔 h 𝑃𝐵
 Gating design (Calculation of velocities)
Note: We are interested in the calculation of velocities at Sprue-inlet and Sprue
out-let
Pouring basin
Applying B.T between point 1 and 3
1
2 2
𝑃1 𝑉 1 𝑃3 𝑉 3 hPB
h 1+ + = h3 + + 2
𝜌 𝑔 2𝑔 𝜌 𝑔 2𝑔 Sprue inlet
2
𝑉3
h 𝑠 + h𝑃𝐵 +0 +0=0 +0+ ht hS
2𝑔 Sprue
2
𝑉 3= 2 g (h 𝑃𝐵 + h 𝑠)

𝑉 3= √ 2 g (h 𝑃𝐵 + h 𝑠) Where; Runner
Datum 3
𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑢𝑒 −𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑡 =𝑉 3 =√ 2 g h𝑡 =𝑀𝑎𝑥 . 𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 Sprue outlet
The law of continuity
For a system with impermeable walls and filled with an incompressible fluid, the
rate of flow will be the same at all points in the system. This can be expressed as:
Volumetric flow rate =

Again, the permeability of sand molds can complicate the strict application of this
law, introducing potential problems into the casting process

Note: Term “Incompressible” means where the change in density with pressure
is so small as to be negligible
 Relationship between areas and heights
The area of sprue inlet should be calculated using mass energy balance equations,
using equation of continuity; where h1 and h2 are the metallostatic pressure heads at
the sprue-inlet and sprue outlet, respectively. A1 and A2 are cross-sectional areas
h1 =hPB respectively

A1 = Area Asprue-inlet

𝐴 1= 𝐴 𝑆𝑝𝑟𝑢𝑒 − 𝑖𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡
h2 =ht
𝐴 2= 𝐴 𝑆𝑝𝑟𝑢𝑒 −𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑡
h 1=h 𝑃𝐵
 The square root suggests that the profile of the sprue
h 2=h 𝑡 should be parabolic
 Inconvenient in practice to manufacture so taper sprue
is preferable

A2 = Area Asprue-outlet
Gating System (Fluid flow)
Reynolds number: It should be recognized that the liquids flows either in a
Laminar or in a turbulent fashion. The Reynolds number is a dimensionless
number which can be expressed mathematically by the following relation;

Where;

(Kg/m3)

The Reynold number is used to categorized whether the flow is laminar or turbulent. The
flow is Laminar If and their will be no sand erosion.
Gating Design

Pouring time (tP):

The time required to complete filling of mold is called pouring
time.
It is a very important criteria in the designing of gating system
Long pouring time required higher pouring temperatures
Too less pouring time means turbulence in the mold
So, an optimum pouring can result in defect free castings.
Pouring time depends upon
- The material to be cast
- Complexity of the casting
- Section thickness
- Casting size
Factors affecting the fluidity
(relating to melt only)
• Metal/or alloy composition
• Superheat
• Material viscosity
• Solidification range of the alloy
• Suspended inclusion
• Short freezing range alloy
• Long freezing range alloy
• Surface tension
 Heat Transfer
• The heat transfer during the complete cycle (from pouring, to
solidification, and to cooling to room temperature) is another
important consideration in metal casting.

• For instance, in casting thin sections, the metal flow rates must be
high enough to avoid premature chilling and solidification.

• On the other hand, the flow rate must not be so high as to cause
excessive turbulence—with its detrimental effects on the casting
process.
Solidification
Time
Defects
Porosity
Gating design
Problem: The volumetric flow rate of a liquid Aluminium alloy in the sprue is

0.5 Liter/s. The cross-sectional area of sprue-inlet is 600 mm2 and total
height of sprue is 150 mm. What should be the cross-sectional area at
sprue-outlet in order to design a taper sprue to avoid air aspiration in the
mold cavity? Also find the diameters of sprue inlet and sprue-outlet?
Neglect the friction factor.
Given: Asprue-inet = 600 mm2 Volumetric flow rate = Q = 0.5
litre/second
hPB
Height of sprue = 150 mm Asprue-outlet = ? Sprue-inlet
1

ht= 150 mm Tapered sprue

Sprue-outlet
2
Gating Design
Since 1.0 litre = 106 mm3
And 1.0 litre = 0.001 m3
Q = 0.5 x 0.001 m3/second = 0.0005 m3/second
= 0.000288 m3 = 288 mm2

= 291.60 mm2

Diameter of sprue-inlet =

dinlet = 27.63 mm

Diameter of sprue-outlet = dOutlet = 19.24 mm 19 mm