FUNDAMENTALS OF DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM – SEM 1

UNIT 1
1) Database System – Concepts
a. Data is defined as raw facts and figures.
b. Processing raw data to expose its meaning produces information
c. Data processing can range from being straightforward, such as grouping data to identify trends, to
being sophisticated, such as forecasting or inferring conclusions using statistical modelling
d. Data processing involves several different steps, including database management. It involves a number
of data models transitioning into various DBMS software programmers.
e. Data specification is one way to define data structure. To perform data organization in main memory,
many data structures like arrays, stacks, queues, trees and graphs are employed.
f. A database is a collection of data describing the activities of one or additional connected knowledge
concerning student, course and their relationship.
g. As a result, a database management system is a set of hardware and software that may be used to create,
maintain and control databases as well as control the updating and retrieval of data that has been placed
in them.
h. It is the software that controls the creation, maintenance and use of the database.
i. The purpose of a database is to store and recover data in a manner that is exact and viable and to deal
with the various data sets it contains (execution, security, accessibility, uprightness and so on.)

2) Advantages of DBMS
a. Reduction of Redundancies
i. The DBA`s centralized management of data prevents pointless data duplication and significantly
lowers the overall amount of storage space needed for data.
ii. Additionally, it does away with the additional processing required to find essential data among a
big volume of data
b. Elimination of Inconsistencies
i. The primary benefit of eliminating duplication is the removal of inconsistent data files, which
are frequently seen in redundant data files
ii. The system controls any redundancy in the DBMS and makes sure these numerous copies are
consistent
c. Shared Data
i. A database enables any number of application programmers or users to share the data under its
management
ii. The programmers for the payroll and public relations departments, for instance, can share the
same data
d. Integrity
i. A centralized control system can also guarantee that the DBMS has sufficient checks in place to
maintain data integrity.
ii. Data consistency and accuracy are two terms used to describe the database`s data integrity
iii. As a result, data values being submitted for storage could be validated to make sure they are of
the right format and fall inside a given range
e. Security
i. Data can be secret and is of utmost value to a corporation.
ii. Unauthorized individuals must not have access to such sensitive information.
iii. The DBA, who is eventually responsible for the information in the DBMS, can ensure that
reasonable access methodology are stuck to, including proper verification
strategies for admittance to the DBMS and further checks prior to permitting admittance
to delicate information.
f. Data independence
i. Data independence refers to the capability of changing a scheme definition at one level without
impacting a scheme definition at a higher level.
ii. Application programs should be as insulated from the specifics of data format and storage
as practicable.

HATIM KANORWALA
FUNDAMENTALS OF DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM – SEM 1
3) Disadvantages of DBMS
a. Hardware, Software and relocation costs
i. A significant disadvantage of the DBMS system is its high cost.
ii. Upgraded hardware is necessary to support the complex programs and work areas needed for
their execution and storage, in addition to the cost of obtaining or developing the
iii. software
Response and throughput times suffer as a result of the processing overhead added by DBMS to
provide data security, integrity, and sharing
b. Problems associated with centralization
i. While centralization reduces duplication, the lack of duplication forces the database to maintain
a sufficient number of backups so that the data can be restored in the case of a
malfunction.
ii. Additionally, centralized information is available from a single source.
iii. Due to failures and downtimes, this raises the possibility of security breaches and organizational
operation interruption

c. Complexity of Backup and Recovery

i. In a concurrent multi-user database system, backup and recovery processes are made much more
difficult by the DBMS environment.
ii. In order to provide access to linked data items, a database system also needs a certain amount
of regulated redundancy and duplication

4) Disadvantages of File processing system

a. Data Redundancy
i. Redundant data is information that appears in multiple files at the same time. Data
redundancy results from this.
b. Data inconsistency
i. Different versions of the same data that are inconsistency do not match.
ii. That implies that the same essential information exists in many versions.
iii. Update activities that don’t update the same data stored in many locations result in this
c. Difficult in accessing data
i. Information cannot be easily retrieved using a traditional file processing system
ii. Using a traditional file processing system makes a nearly hard to retrieve information quickly
and effectively
d. Data isolation
i. Writing a new application programme to retrieve data is tough since data are dispersed among
multiple files and the files may be in different formats.
e. Integrity problem
i. Some integrity requirements may need to be met by the data values.
ii. For instance, the value in the balance field must be higher than 5000
iii. Through the use of programme code in file processing systems, we must handle this.
iv. However, the integrity restrictions can be declared with the definition itself in a database
f. Atomicity problem
i. In a file processing system, atomicity is difficult to guarantee.
ii. Suppose $100 were transferred from account A to account b.
iii. If there is a problem with the execution, it can happen that $100 is taken out of account A but not
credited to account B
g. Concurrent Access anomalies
i. Multiple users simultaneously modifying the same data will lead to inconsistent data state.
ii. It is quite challenging to handle this utilizing programme code in a file processing system
h. Security Problems
i. Due to the ad hoc additional of application to the file processing system, it is exceedingly
challenging to enforce security constraints

HATIM KANORWALA
FUNDAMENTALS OF DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM – SEM 1
5) Architecture of DBMS

a) Data Files
a. The database itself is stored in it
b) Data Dictionary
a. It stores metadata about the database structure
c) DDL Compiler
a. DDL statements are interpreted, and definitions are added to the data dictionary
d) DML Compiler
a. It converts DML statements made in a query language into an evaluation plan made up of
simple commands that the query evaluation engine can follow.
b. Additionally, it optimizes queries, selecting the assessment plan with the lowest cost from a list
of available options
e) Stored Data manager
a. A database systems storage manager serves are the interface between the application programs and
queries sent to the system and the low-level data stored in the database.
b. The numerous DML statements are converted into low-level file system commands by the
storage
manager.
c. As a results, the storage manager is in charge of putting data into the database, getting it out, and
updating it
f) Query optimizer
a. The DML compliers low-level instructions are evaluated by it.
g) Compiled DML
a. The DML complier converts the high-level Queries into low level file access commands known as
compiled DML
h) End Users
a. The second class of users then is end user, who interacts with system from online workstation or
terminals.
b. Use the interface provided as an integral part of the database system software.
c. User can request, in form of query, to access database either directly by using particular language,
such as SQL, or by using some pre-developed application interface.
d. Such request is sent to query evaluation engine via DML pre-compiler and DML compiler

6) Relational Data Models

a. Data models are used to display the data required by business operations and are communication tool
between the business people creating the needs for a computer system and the technical people designing
the design is response to requirements or specifications
HATIM KANORWALA
FUNDAMENTALS OF DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM – SEM 1
b. A data model is a way finding tool for both business and IT professionals, using a set of symbols and text
to precisely explain a subset of real information to improve communication within the organization and
subsequently lead to a more flexible and stable application environment

7) Building blocks of Data Models

a. There are four building blocks of data models which are listed as:
i. Entity
1. An Entity is defined as an object that exists in real world such as a person, place, thing or
event about which the data are to be collected and stored.
2. An entity is the fundamental item in any data model as it is distinguishable.
3. Example: CUSTOMER, STUDENT, etc.
ii. Attribute
1. The characteristics describing an entity is called attribute.
2. Eg attributes of CUSTOMER entity are cname, caddress, cgender.
3. Each attribute represents a domain with set of specific values
iii. Relationship
1. An association between entities is described by a relationship
2. Eg, there exist a relationship between the entities publisher and book as many books are
published by a publisher
3. Data Models use 3 types of relationship cardinality
a. One-to-one (1:1): There can only be one other entity that one entity is
connected.
Eg, one manager manages only one department
b. One-to-Many (1:M): Any number of additional entities are connected to one.
Eg,
One publisher published many books
c. Many-to-Many (M:M): Many entities are associated with many other entities,
Eg, Many students are enrolled for many courses

iv. Constraints
1. A constraint is a restriction placed on the data to ensure the integrity and consistency of
the database.
2. They are rules or checks according to which the data is forced to be inserted in the
database

8) Types of Data Models

a. Hierarchical
i. A modelModel
in which the data is arranged in a tree-like form is called hierarchical database model.
ii. The structure provides for the representation of information utilizing the parent/child
relationship, also known as one-to-many relationship, in which each parent may have several
children, but each child only has one.
iii. This architecture, which is made up of nodes and branches, is similar to a hierarchical tree
structure used to build hierarchy of reports.
iv. The data is kept in a unit with logical structure, where a parent unit can have multiple children
but a kid is only allowed to have one parent unit.
v. Advantages
1. Sharing of data is encouraged
HATIM KANORWALA
FUNDAMENTALS OF DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM – SEM 1
2. The parent-child bond encourages conceptual clarity

3. DBMS provides and enforces support the integrity of data

vi. Disadvantages
1. Physical data storage expertise is needed for complex implementation
2. Lack of structural independence
3. Programming complexity

b. Network Model
i. Directed graph theory provides the foundation for the network model
ii. It creates a graph in place of hierarchical tree, allowing connections between the nodes.
iii. It permits a record to have several parents.
iv. The network model is a database design that a user sees as a group of record types and the
connections between them.
v. In a network model, links are used to describe relationships among data while collections of
records are used to represent data

vi. Advantages
1. Conceptually simple and easy to design
2. It can handle 1-M and M-M relationship
3. Data access is flexible than that of hierarchical
model
vii. Disadvantages
1. System complexity
2. Not user-friendly structure
3. Operational anomalies

c. Relational Model
i. Tables are used in a relational model to describe the data and the connections between those
elements.
ii. There are several columns in each table, and each column is given a distinct name.
iii. The definition of data structure, storage and retrieval procedures, and integrity requirements are
all possible with relational databases.
iv. Tables are used in this database to organize the data and the relationship between it
v. Advantages
HATIM KANORWALA
FUNDAMENTALS OF DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM – SEM 1
1. Easy to use: Users don’t have to deal with the databases complexity in order to quickly
access or retrieve the data they need
2. Simplicity: The relational database model is substantially less complex than other kinds
of
database models. Simple SQL queries are sufficient to handle the data because there is no
query processing or structuring required.
3. Integrity of Data: Since RDBMS databases offer consistency across all tables, they are
also frequently employed for data integrity
vi. Disadvantages
1. Increasing spending: Relational databases are rather expensive to use since they have
many appealing characteristics. In order to receive the full benefits of RDBMS, the
business or user must also buy the necessary software and equipment
2. It may promote islands of information problems as individuals and departments can
easily develop their own application
3. Performance Challenge: Due to the dependence on rows and columns, relational
databases performance level can be low. As a result, the query will take longer to process
the result if there are plenty of rows and tables.

d. E-R Model
i. The entity relationship data model was first introduced in 1976 by Dr. Peter Pin-Shan Chen.
ii. E-R diagrams which use graphical representations to model database components, are typically
used to display ER Models.
iii. The data items and relationships for a given system are defined using this model.
iv. It creates the databases conceptual design.
v. It creates a very straightforward and straightforward data view
vi. Advantages
1. If we understand the relationship between entities and characteristics we can quickly and
simply create and ER diagram
2. A diagrammatic depiction of any logical database structure, the ER model provides a
better visual representation.
3. Database
vii. Disadvantage designers can effectively communicate with one another using this tool
1. Content information loss: In E-R Model, certain information may be obscured or lost
2. Limited relationship representation: When compared to other data models like the
relational mode, etc., the ER model only expresses limited relationship
3. Data modification is not represented: It is challenging to demonstrate data manipulation
in an ER Model

e. Object-Oriented Model
i. In object-oriented model, an object is a single structure that houses both the data and the
relationship between them
ii. The handling of conventional fielded data, complex items like time-series and geospatial data,
and a variety of binary media including audio, video, pictures, and applets are all integrated in
these new facilities (Object/relational Database Management System - ORDBMSs).
iii. The foundation of the object-oriented paradigm is a set of objects that each have values that
are kept in instance variables. It consists of the operational models
iv. An object is an abstraction of an actual thing, its attributes specify its characteristics, and
classes
are collections of related elements.
v. In object-oriented databases, small, reusable software components known as objects are used.
vi. Advantages
1. Capability of handling large number of different data types
vii. 2. Combination of object-oriented programming
Disadvantages
1. Difficult to maintain
2. Not suitable for all applications
HATIM KANORWALA
FUNDAMENTALS OF DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM – SEM 1
9) Relational Database Constraints
a. A constraint is a relational database management system is a rule that is programmed into the
database which ensures that data entered into the database is consistent
b. The different data integrity restrictions limit the type of data values that can be added to or generated by
a database change
c. The basic types of integrity constraints are:
i. Required Data (Not Null)
1. Some fields in a database must have a valid value in each row, missing or NULL values
are not permitted.
2. The NOT NULL constraint, which functions as a rule to prevent NULL values from
being placed into the table, allows the DBMS to request to prevent null values from being
used.
3. These attributes are the ones which contain mandatory values and values of the attribute
cannot be missing or NULL but can be repetitive in nature.
4. For example, in a student table, student name cannot be missing or null value but
can contain repetitive value.
ii. Validity check/ domain integrity/user defined integrity (Check Constraint)
1. Every column in a database has a domain, or a range of valid values.
2. Check constraint, often known as table check constraint, can help with this.
3. When adding or changing data, a table check constraint determines what constitutes valid
information in a particular column
4. A search (Primary
iii. Entity Integrity condition restricted formKey)
Key / Unique is used to specify the check limitation
1. Entity integrity is a table level integrity imposed on a relation.
2. Every table must have a primary key that contains unique and NOT NULL values for the
column it is imposed on.
3. Example: Values of such domain are mandatory such as rollno, sname of a student are
some mandatory fields which cannot be missing nor cannot bear to have no values for
unique identification of a record.
4. According to the entity integrity constraint, no primary key value be NULL
5. Entity integrity can be imposed using PRIMARY KEY and UNIQUE KEY in a table
6. Unique key allows unique and NULL value in a domain but Primary key does not allow
Null value in a domain where the values of primary key column is NOT NULL and
Unique
7. Example: in a student table, RollNo is a primary key column as each student is uniquely
identified by his rollno which cannot be missing or repeative and Phone Number is a
unique key column as each student owns a unique phone number but can also be null as
few of them may not have it
iv. Referential integrity (Foreign Key)
1. A relationship between two data tables – referred to as referenced tables (Primary key
tables) and referential tables (Foreign key tables) is built using a programme key.
2. A foreign key is a field in a referential table that corresponds to the primary key column
of the related table.
3. Differential integrity, a feature of data, requires that every value of one attribute in
a
database also exist as a value of another attribute in a different table.
4. It guarantees the consistency of the parent-child relationship established by the primary
key and the foreign key.
5. Any field in a table that is designated as a foreign key for referential integrity may
only
contain values taken from the main key of the parent table.
6. If a child of parent exists then the following restrictions are implied in a database
a. Updating the parent row with primary key
b. Deleting the parent row
c. Updating the child row with foreign key

HATIM
10) KANORWALA
Relational Algebra
a. A procedural query language called relational algebra is used.
FUNDAMENTALS OF DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM – SEM 1
b. It provides a step-by-step procedure for getting the query`s result.
c. It runs queries using operators
d. Operations of Relational Algebra are
i. Select (σ)
1. Using some criteria, it selects a subset of tuples from a relation.
2. The select operation only affects one relation because it is a unary
action.
3. Its purpose is to choose tuples that meet a specified condition
4. Syntax: σcondition(relation)
5. Example:
ii. Project (π) σjob=’Analyst’(emp)
1. Projection selects the specific attributes from the
relation
2. Syntax: πattribute(s)(relation)
3. Example: πempno,ename(emp)
iii. 4. Example: πename(σsal<200(emp))
Renaming
1. The(ρ)output relation is renamed using the rename operation.
2. Syntax: ρ<new_name>(relation)
3. Example: ρemployee(emp)
4. Example: πsal(σename=’Allen’(ρemp_details(emp)))
iv. Union (∪)
1. The union operator yields the results that appear in either or both of two relations.
2. Syntax: (Query1) ∪ (Query2)
v. Intersection (∩)
1. The SQL INTERSECT operator is used to combine two select statements, but returns
rows only from the first SELECT statement that are identical to a row in the second
SELECT statement.
2. This means INTERSECT returns only common rows returned by the two SELECT
statements
3. Syntax: (Query1) ∩ (Query2)
vi. Difference (-)
1. The SQL MINUS query returns all rows in the first SQL Select statement that are not
returned in the second SQL SELECT statement
vii. Cartesian (x)
1. The CARTESIAN PRODUCT operation, also known as cross product or cross join, builds
a relation with all of the characteristics of A and B, enabling all conceivable combinations
of tuples from A and B in the outcome
2. Syntax: (Query1) x (Query2)
viii. Division (÷)
1. It produces the tuples in one relation, r, that matches all tuples in another relation.
2. R÷S = tuples of R associated with all tuples of S
3. Syntax: (Query1) ÷ (Query2)
ix. Join Operator (⋈)
4. If and only if a specific join condition is met, a join operation pairs two tuples from
distinct relations.
5. Natural Join (⋈)
a. It is a specific example of equijoin where all attributes with the same name
in relations R and S satisfy the equality criterion.
b. No explicit equality requirement needs to be written when using a natural join
on two relations
c. Since their values will be identical in the resultant relation, Natural Join will
also only return similar characteristics once.
3.
Conditional Join (⋈c)
HATIM KANORWALA
FUNDAMENTALS OF DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM – SEM 1
a. Conditional Join is used when two relations are joined based on some conditions.
b. Example: students_basic.rollno JOIN students_academic.rollno
4. Outer Join ()
a. Left Outer Join (): Left outer Join fetches all non-matching tuples from the
left- hand side table i.e., in relation R and S, all non-matching tuples from
relation R will be displayed along with matching tuples from S
b. Right Outer Join (): Right Outer join fetches all non-matching tuples from the
right-hand side table i.e., in relation R and S, all non-matching tuples from
relation S will be displayed along with matching tuples from S
c. Full Outer Join (): Full outer joins fetches all non-matching tuples from both
the tables i.e., in relation R and S, all non-matching tuples from both relation R
and S
will be displayed along with matching tuples

HATIM KANORWALA